Vol. XXXII, Issue 2: Spring 2025 - Netflix & Its African Films; Archival Sources in Nigeria

Table of Content

Ugonna Ezinne Ubah: Representing Igbo Culture Authentically- Realism in the Cinematic Depiction of Afaemefuna

Ihuoma Okorie: I only have one plan and that is to take his head - Reading The Woman King as a Tale of Scars

Azeez Akinwumi Sesan: One App, Too Many: Netflix and Glocalization of Audience of Contemporary Yoruba-Language Films

Nkereuwem David Edemekong: Bridging the Gap between Archival and Traditional Sources of History and AI in Nigeria

Editorial

Nigerian movies, popularly known as Nollywood, have been a staple of African cinema for decades. The industry’s breakthrough film, “Living in Bondage,” produced by Nek Videos around 1992, marked the beginning of Nollywood’s rise to prominence. Since then, Nigerian movies have gained widespread popularity not only in Nigeria and Africa but also in several other countries of the world.

By 2016, Nollywood had become the second-largest film industry in the world, contributing a significant 580 million dollars to Nigeria’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP)[1]. Over the years, the industry has experienced tremendous growth, learning from past mistakes and honing its craft. Today, Nollywood is one of the largest film industries globally, producing over 1,000 films annually.[2]

Moreover, with the existence of Nollywood there are so many talented actors, directors, and producers who showcase Nigerian stories and culture to a global audience. With its unique storytelling style and cultural authenticity, Nollywood has captured the hearts of millions, promoting Nigerian culture and talent worldwide.

Netflix, a renowned international online streaming platform for movies and documentaries, has contributed to Nigerian movies gaining widespread global recognition. With viewers in over 190 countries, Netflix has provided a vast platform for Nigerian films to reach a global audience.[3] People all over the world can conveniently access Nigerian movies on their devices, fostering a deeper appreciation for Nigerian cultural heritage.By providing a platform for Nigerian filmmakers to share their unique stories, Netflix has helped enhance their capabilities in storytelling scriptwriting and directing while preserving cultural heritage and authenticity of Nigerian customs, cultures, and traditions. Some Nigerian movies that featured on Netflix have won prestigious awards. This partnership has not only expanded the reach of Nollywood but also significantly boosted the income and revenue of Nigerian filmmakers in the industry.

Dr Ezinne Ubah highlights the story of Afàméfunà which centers on the story of Nwa Boi, a young apprentice in a traditional Igbo trade and entrepreneurial system. The narrative follows two apprentices, Afàméfunà and Paul, as they learn a trade under their master's guidance. Afàméfunà, the younger of the two, earns his master's trust and affection through his dedication, resilience, loyalty, and hard work. As a result, his master rewards him with financial settlement after many years of service. In contrast, Paul's selfishness and theft lead to his downfall, causing him to miss the opportunity for settlement by their master.

Afàméfunà exemplifies the significance of names in Igbo cultural identity and how realism helps preserve traditional customs and culture. The protagonist's name, Afàméfunà, plays a crucial role in his journey, setting him apart during his apprenticeship. His success story is a testament to the impact of his name and the values it represents, highlighting the importance of cultural heritage in shaping individual destiny.zed

Emotional scars and physical marks of trauma intersect in “The Woman King,” a poignant portrayal of the transatlantic slave trade’s devastating impact on Africa, as discussed by Dr Ihuoma Okorie. The film follows the Agojie, a formidable group of female warriors sworn to celibacy, as they valiantly protect their kingdom. Led by General Nanisca, the Agojie embark on perilous missions to liberate captives from the oppressive Oyo Army and train a new generation of fighters. Nanisca’s unyielding resolve stems from her harrowing past: brutalized and raped by the ruthless Oba Ade, she now seeks vengeance, driven by an unrelenting desire for retribution against her tormentor.

Dr Azeez Akinwumi Sesan maintains that Netflix has revolutionized the reach and diversity of audiences globally, providing a platform for local content to thrive. This article highlights the evolution and growth of Nigerian films, particularly Yoruba films, which have undergone significant transformations over time.

Dr David Edemekong concludes the spring issue of Africa Update with a focus on bridging the gap between traditional historical methodologies and new technologies.

Guest Editor

Africa Update 

Mirian Ngozi Alike PhD
Department of Philosophy,
Faculty of Arts,
Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka.
Orcid: 0000-002-2782-7177.
Email: mn.alike@unizik.edu.ng

Representing Igbo Culture Authentically: Realism in The Cinematic Depiction of Áfàméfunà

Dr. Ugonna Ezinne Ubah
Department of Modern and European Languages, 
Faculty of Arts, 
Nnamdi Azikiwe University Awka, Nigeria. 
Orcid: 0009-0004-9976-5421
Email: ue.ubah@unizik.edu.ng

1. Introduction

The focus of this work is on Southeast Nigeria and the Igbo people ( Ndi Igbo). We are going to navigate through their innovations and rich cultural heritage and practices as showcased in African cinema. There is a popular saying: Igbo enweghi Eze ( Igbo people do not have a King). Every Igbo man is a king on his own and he justifies his existence by making every effort to maintain his legacy. [1].

A new born child in an Igbo land is given a name that is associated with a good attribute of his family. A wealthy family will always desire to maintain a wealthy lineage in their generation thereby giving their children names that would be associated with wealth or good attributes. Mensah and Iloh discuss the concept of wealth in Igbo land and include in the discussion, the naming of a new born child and the interpretation of names.[2]. These personal names are meant to initiate a strong foundation for the child and his generation. For example; Akubundu- Wealth is life, Akuabia- Wealth has arrived, Akunna- Father’s wealth and Áhàméfunà/ Áfàméfunà- Let my legacy remain forever. These names depict the rich culture of Igbo land.

The Nigerian movie "Áfàméfunà: An Nwa Boi Story,” produced by Kayode Kasum, debuted in Theatres on December 1, 2023, and on Netflix on March 29, 2024 . The main character of the film is Áfàméfunà (played by Stan Eze), who is taken in for interrogation after his friend Paulo (played by Alex Ekubo) passes away. Paulo's death brings to light the convoluted past of the two friends navigating the realm of Igbo apprenticeship in Nigeria. They were both working under the household business empire of Odogwu ( played by Kanayo .O. Kanayo). The movie explored the Igbo apprenticeship system highlighting the system as an enterprise associated with many strategies. Áfàméfunà and Paul, with other apprentices, were living under the roof of their master’s house. Their master, Odogwu treated all of them as his own children despite their different family backgrounds. The other characters included Atlanta Bridget as Amaka, Segun Arinze as CSP Gidabo , Paul Nnadiekwe as young Áfàméfunà and Chuks Joseph as young Paul.

However, Áfàméfunà was loved by his master, because of his decent character, while dealing with his master’s business empire, and also for assisting his master when he encountered challenges during the importation of his goods. Áfàméfunà and Paul were good friends but they turned out to be rivals when Áfàméfunà was settled and blessed by their master with a shop, and also rewarded financially to start his own business. Paul claimed that was his own right because he came into the apprenticeship line before Áfàméfunà. The movie ended with a twist; Paul was very greedy and started stealing from Áfàméfunà. Áfàméfunà, being a considerate individual, played to the tune of Paul who was later caught for his wrong dealings.

This essay will look into how 'Áfàméfunà' depicts the actual representation of Igbo traditional apprenticeship practices. It will assess how the film depicts the conflicts between Igbo cultural heritage and the importance of names, and what implications this has in comprehending Igbo people's cultural identity. In order to support cultural continuity and transfer to future generations, realism in cultural depiction aids in the preservation of traditional customs and cultural heritage. Alike and Umenze established the fact that the Igbo apprenticeship was an institution guarded by customs, lineage and rituals.[3]. In other words, it is a traditional practice that has been existing for a long time which is also passed from one generation to another. Therefore, to portray more on this aspect of Igbo apprenticeship, we will focus our study based on the idea of realism to study Igbo culture and tradition.

2. Concept of Realism

Literature defines the objectivity of the society by representing the activities of people in the society. This particular function of literature serving as a tool for representing society is linked to the definition of realism. Literary works depend on originality and authenticity and this is also a link to the concept of realism. [4].

The idea of adapting realism in presenting a movie encourages audiences to relate to characters and their experiences. It promotes authentic storytelling thereby providing a genuine and honest representation of life. Realism in literature offers a powerful tool for storytelling, enabling creators to capture the complexity and rich cultural backgrounds of different ethnic groups. Realism has also been applied in movies, representing everyday life in the society. This includes cultural, socio- economic, artistic and political representation. For example Italian post-war activities were represented in movies such as "La Strada" (1954) and "Rome, Open City" (1945). These films presented an idea of realism based on aesthetic by emphasizing the lives of common people in the wake of conflict. [5].

There are other movies that have showcased Igbo culture such as Omugwo (2017), ’76 (2016) and Living in Bondage(1992) produced by Kunle Afolayan, Izu Ojukwu, and Chris Obi Rabu, respectively. These movies painted an accurate picture of Igbo society, representing its cultural and political background, and even traditional ethics.

Realism in literature depicts common places, common people and everyday events as they actually happen . Realist literature typically uses clear, understandable language to portray characters and their experiences. Realism avoids flowery language in favour of reflecting the situation accurately . Literary realism frequently concentrates on middle-class and working-class individuals as well as well-known locations, as in the case of French Literature.[6].

3. Portrayal of Igbo Culture in Áfàméfunà

Igbo culture is very vast and has many dimensions. We will showcase the different dimensions and their significance as portrayed in the movie Áfàméfunà. We will provide in-depth analysis of how Igbo culture is represented in the movie, including cultural practices, traditions, and values. Áfàméfunà, as an Igbo movie, presents a complex picture of Igbo culture by highlighting many dimensions of customs, rituals, and beliefs.

Cultural Practices: - The first few scenes in the movie started with traditional Igbo dancing and music, which was actually the commemoration of the death of Áfàméfunà ’s father. This type of celebration is usually done when the family is wealthy. When Áfàméfunà’s father died, his family didn’t bury him properly, according to tradition, and they did not fulfil the entire necessary requirement because they were not wealthy. But when Áfàméfunà became wealthy, he chose to bury and celebrate his father properly. The remembrance party emphasizes the importance of commemorating the dead to show them that the living have not forgotten them. It shows how festivals and ceremonies do play a huge part in Igbo spirituality and community. This scene was characterized by other rich colleagues of Áfàméfunà spraying money on him, and also praising him. Though the celebration was interrupted by the police who came to arrest Áfàméfunà because of the death of Paul Obiajulu (Paulo), Áfàméfunà insisted that the event should continue with or without him.

Another cultural practice that can be visualized in the movie is apprenticeship. In Igbo land, apprenticeship is a form of traditional education whereby an unskilled person learns skills from his mentor between a period of time. At the end of the agreed time, the person is settled by his mentor and released so that he could start his own business. This implies that the mentor- addressed as Master ( commonly called Oga or Madam ) - that owns a skill, enterprise or vocation trains another person, the Mentee/ Servant- Nwa-boi/ Igba- Odibo/ Igba –boi/ Imu aka oru. This cultural practice has been in existence for many decades. Though it has its disadvantage, when applied appropriately, it is usually a route to financial freedom. [7]

In Áfàméfunà, Afam lost his dad at a young age, and he was brought to Lagos by his mother to learn skills in the business empire of Odogwu at the age of 17. As an intelligent Igbo boy, he learned the principles of the business under his Oga. Áfàméfunà encountered other boys in Odogwu’s empire, was extremely diligent in work, and was rewarded accordingly. He followed his Oga’s precepts and had the character of a real and a trusted nwa-boi, who didn’t follow the bad gangs. Afàméfunà exhibited the spirit of transparency which endeared him to his Oga, Mr Odogwu. Odogwu taught Áfàméfunà how to respect customers and also advised him not to steal. The movie presented the reality of apprenticeship, displaying the business relationships involving the customers, the master and his apprentices.

According to Odogwu, the Igbo apprenticeship is like a chain that revolves. A mentor will train a mentee and settle him with a business, and the mentee now becomes a mentor, and also trains other mentees and the process goes on and on:

Odogwu specifically said wherever a person goes to and didn’t see an Igbo man , that the person should run away from there. In conclusion of his words to Áfàméfunà, he said ‘‘Igbo Amaka ’’ which signifies the riches found in Igbo land cannot be found in another land. In terms of the theory of realism, the movie displayed the real truth behind the Nwa boi story in the sense that it presented the actuality of the Igbo culture been displayed in the business world. Nwa boi, represents an ideal name for an Igbo apprentice whose world is surrounded by business. He works under his Oga for a certain period of time in other to be tutored on the principles of entrepreneurship and when that period of time elapses, he gets settled to start his own business and earn a living for himself. The Igbo people signaled this apprentice ship practice as an ever green cultural practice which can never die.

Áfàméfunà also teaches us about the reward for respecting elders. This was portrayed when Áfàméfunà was settled before Paul, though Paul was his senior but Odogwu decided to settle Afam before Paul. Though, this action was the beginning of the fracas between Paul and Afam, because Paul became extremely jealous of Afam. This cultural practice of respect to elders showcased the best attitude displayed during apprenticeship that attracts blessings in the end. Overall, Áfàméfunà portrays the Igbo cultural activities and its significance and also it, highlighted its overall complexity and the beauty that emanates from it. The film's thoughtful representation of cultural practices and traditions, presents a valuable contribution to the understanding and appreciation of Igbo culture.

4. Impact of Realism on Cultural Representation

One of the basic features of realism is to produce an accurate and an authentic representation of society and its impact. [8] This act is characterized by objectivity and accuracy. However, the realistic representation of Igbo cultural practices in movies is a subtle way of validating the identities and experiences of the Igbo community.

The name Áfàméfunà (let my legacy remain forever) was well illustrated in the movie. [8]. Authenticity as a term in Realism depicts actuality and genuine representation without duplication.[9] Though, Afam was arrested and questioned because of the death of his deceitful friend, Paul, his name remained true to his actions. The explanation that he gave the Officer, CSP Gidabo to explain his innocence was a truthful story without exaggeration or manipulation. As a newcomer in the Odogwu’s business empire, the other boys nick named him JJC, meaning Johnny just come, a beginner, but that didn’t change his identity. He was loyal to the end and his boss , Odogwu rewarded him, and even gave him his beautiful daughter to marry.[10]. This shows the significance of names, thereby promoting cultural practices. The film intricately weaves the story of the Igbo apprenticeship system, entrepreneurship and the quest for economic rejuvenation through a lens of love , betrayal and redemption[11].

The film also pictured how the system is built from scratch, and showcased Igbo business acumen, and how successful Igbo entrepreneurs flourish and make their ancestors proud.

Conclusion

This analysis has examined the portrayal of Igbo culture in the movie Áfàméfunà through the lens of realism. While the movie successfully captures some aspects of Igbo culture, it also perpetuates certain stereotypes. The significance of cultural authenticity, originality, and accuracy cannot be overstated. By applying realism, valuable moral lessons can be derived, beneficial for personal growth and societal development. Realism has the power to shape public perceptions and influence cultural identity. To improve future representations of Igbo culture in movies, it is essential to prioritize Igbo perspectives and voices, ensuring authentic representation. Additionally, providing cultural context and education to audiences would enhance understanding and appreciation of Igbo culture.

References

1. Pelizo, R., Kinyondo, A., & Nwokora, Z. Development in Africa. World Affairs, 181(2018):256-285.
2. Mensah, Ego O and Queendaline. lloh. ‘‘ wealth is king: The conceptualization of wealth in igbo personal naming practices’’. Anthropological Quartely. 94 (2021): 699-723
3. Alike and Umenze. Socio-economic philosophy of contemporary igbo apprenticeship system. Nnadibube Journal of philosophy(NJP) 3,1 (2019):35-48.
4. Morris, Pam. Realism.Routledge, 2003.
5. Mecklenburg, Johann . Literary Impressionism: Flaubert’s Life and His Novels Ipso Facto: The Carleton Journal of Interdisciplinary Humanities1(2022)81-90
6. Flaubert, Gustave. Madame Bovary. Paris : Libraires- Editeurs,1857.
7. Alake, Motolani. The Igbo apprenticeship system that builds wealth and started the incubation system. 2018. www.pulse.ng
8. Igbo Names. https//www.umuigbo.com/igbo-names.
9. ‘Authenticity and the New Realism,’’ n.d.http://www.sirc.org/articles/new_realism.shtml.
10. Leadership News. “Áfàméfunà: inside Latest Netflix Movie with Riveting Dive into Igbo Apprenticeship System.’’ Leadership News, 30 March 2024.
11. Valchiz. ‘‘ A Review of Afamefuna/ an Nwa Boi Story Movie.’’ Ecency, ecency. Com/hive-166847.

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“I only have one plan, and that is to take his head”: 
Reading The Woman King as a Tale of Two Scars

Ihuoma Okorie Ph.D.
Department of Theatre and Performing Arts 
Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria 
Orcid: 0000-0002-2611-3658. 
Email: oihuoma.tpu@buk.edu.ng

Introduction

Scars are generally defined as a feeling of great physical or emotional pain that normally lasts for a long period of time. Scars can result from a range of causes: domestic violence, abuse, accidents and even surgeries. These scars which may be physical or emotional often have a resultant effect on the people affected. Effect ranges from a change in appearance to a change in behaviour- a functional impairment which may prompt a change attitude, appearance, and behaviour. Physical scarring is visible unlike the emotional scars which have no visible sign; they often grow rather than fade overtime. For this reason, Ngaage writes that “physical scarring is often stigmatized in society because of the premium placed on beauty, but emotional scars are often traumatic and may perpetuate emotional injury.”[1]

A scar is simply defined as a mark left on part of the body after an injury which can be visible or invisible. Shen, Chen & Tian define scars as “a normal and inevitable physiological response to the natural healing process of wounds or trauma in the human body”.[2] It is a phenomenon which is often stigmatized because of the premium placed on beauty. This is further encapsulated in the words of Moss and Rosser who state that identity and body image affect behaviours and inform actions, as well as how individuals perceive each other.[3]. Sometimes, this change in appearance threatens sense of self and personhood. Stemming from the above, this chapter conceptualises scars in two ways. The first is a permanent patch of skin that grows over a wound, and secondly, a lasting psychological injury. Slattery opines that a marked body is not only an individual phenomenon but a cultural symptom. Particularly, he notes that:

To support the above claim, Ngaage & Agius write that scars can impede physical functioning. This reduced functionality can be life changing, warranting to a change in the psychosocial functioning of an individual. They also state that scars cause a permanent identity change, therefore, an adjustment to the outward and inner self-image is needed.[5] This explains the emotional effect of scars.

Overtime, the negative emotional impact can heighten due to the changing physical feel. This explains why Ucok writes that “managing visible scars often means managing the stigma of scars, and one’s bodies can easily become the focal point of attention for both the self and others.[6] From the above, it can be inferred that scars do not only affect the beauty of the body surface, but also impede the physiological function of the related tissues and organs. This simply connotes that scars cause both physical pain and mental anguish. It instigates and brings traumatizing memories, which are even harder to heal than the physical reminders. Scars can be unsightly, resulting in the telling and retelling of a sad experience. Therefore, emotional scars by their very nature, are invisible, and internalized, yet they govern the attitudes, thoughts, even decisions of the sufferer. As such, those with scars undergo a remodelling of their emotional state and are prone to the development of depression and anxiety. The emotional pain can be so overwhelming even without a word being said. Therefore, while physical scars are obvious, emotional scars lurk beneath the surface and can be so profound. Scars run deep, and that goes for emotional and physical effects alike. Therefore, the effect of both the physical and emotional scars shall be examined in the character of Nanisca, in the film, The Woman King.

Interactionism: Mind-Body Relationship

Interactionism was developed by the 17<sup>th</sup>-Century French philosopher Rene Descartes. Heil states that “some elements of his theory have precedents in the works of earlier thinkers, Aristotelianism, and Stoicism, and are featured in many Asian philosophies”.[7] According to Lawhead, “Interactionism is based on the idea of the independent existence of two separate realities: The physical realm and the spiritual world. In the physical realm, science is the dominant authority, while the spiritual realm is governed by religion”[8]. This dual nature of the universe also implies the dual nature of human beings. Descartes believes that humans are a union of the mind and body, which are separate substances, closely joined together. The mind is a non-physical and, therefore, non-spatial entity, whereas the body and the brain are physical entities.

As captured by Lawhead, the main point of interactionism that distinguishes it from other dualist theories is the idea of the interaction between the mind and the body. [9]. Descartes claims that the mind and the brain, being closely connected to each other, can interact, and influence one another. The above simply connotes that mental events can cause bodily events, and vice versa. As further explained by Lawhead, the interaction between the mind and the body occurs in the pineal gland of the brain, where the soul is located, and all thoughts are formed.[10]. At that time, the knowledge of the brain was limited –the scientists know about the pineal gland but did not know its function. From the above, it can be averred that the newly discovered organ serves as a mediator between the body and the mind. This theory therefore elaborates on the connection between the mind and the body. It is suitable for this chapter because it acknowledges the everyday human experience and an attempt to explain it from a theoretical perspective. Though, the mind and the body are two separate entities, they are closely connected and influence each other. Simply put, mental processes affect human behaviour. Thus, the mind and body-or mental events and physical events-causally influence each other. What then is the relationship between the mind and the body? How did one get to influence the other in the character of Nanisca, the protagonist? At what point did the mind influence the bodily actions, and vice versa, in the life of the character?

Concept of Motivated Forgetting

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the Austrian neurologist, is the pioneer of psychoanalysis. One major contribution of this that fits the present study is his theory on motivated forgetting. Motivated forgetting also known as repression, is a psychological defence mechanism by which an individual blocks out traumatic or unpleasant memories, thoughts, or feelings. This occurs as a way to protect oneself from emotional pain. “Freud suggests that when people are subject to traumatic experiences, they protect themselves by burying their painful memories deep in their minds. Those memories stay hidden for weeks and even years until they are evoked by something or someone.[11]. This process is motivated by a strong will to forget undesired and disturbing memories. It is a ‘self-defence mechanism’ revealed through repression and suppression”. Repression happens when someone unconsciously forgets unpleasant experiences whereas suppression is consciously blocking undesirable memories. Therefore, the process of motivated forgetting involves the active suppression or inhibition of unwanted memories. This happens through a variety of mechanisms which includes the alteration of memories through re-interpretation, or the use of avoidance strategies to prevent the triggering of unwanted memories. The person involved avoids people or places associated with the trauma, to prevent the memory from being triggered. Freud’s work which is centred on emotional behaviour and blocking unwanted desires is relevant to this chapter. It will be used to dissect the character of Nanisca, focusing on how she deploys this concept to navigate her challenges in the movie.

Analysing the Scars of Nanisca.

Released on 16 September 2022 and directed by Gina Prince- Bythewood, The Woman King mirrors the devastating effects of slave trade in Africa. Set in the West African kingdom of Dahomey, now known as the Republic of Benin, during the 1820s, it tells the story of the Agojie, an all-female group of warriors who protect the kingdom. They are fierce, and have vowed to a life of celibacy; no man is allowed into their training ground. In the opening, the Agojie liberates prisoners from the Oyo army. In that era, the ninth ruler of Dahomey, the new king Ghezo, tries to see things from a different perspective. His kingdom has a tributary pact with the mighty Oyo Empire. Included in the contract is the use of the Quidah Port as a slave trade route. The kingdom is torn between paying tribute, which comes with a heavy trade tax, and not paying which is a declaration of war. To raise an army enough to dare the Oyo army, the leader of the Agojie, General Nanisca, is tasked with training a new generation of warriors to fight against an enemy.

Nanisca is the main protagonist in the film, the leader of the all-female group warriors, called the Agojie. She is stern and at the same time, diplomatic. She was captured at a young age; however, she makes it back to her home and rose to the ranks of General. She earned her place as the leader of the Agojie by proving herself on the field of battle, but she navigates palace politics with patience and solemnity, never allowing her position r to make her arrogant To rise against their opposition, she tests the commitment of the Oyo’s new female recruits through a series of boot camp contests Kingdom.

She is a brave character whose strength comes from surviving the worst a soldier can face. For her, that includes rape, which she pushes down her painful memories. Her coping mechanism is to label emotion as weak. She recounts the negative experiences she went through in the hands of Oba and how she was raped. Even though she tries to intentionally forget the painful memories (suppression), it still haunts her. This is captured when she has a dream which she narrates to Amenza, her best friend and partner, after she beckoned on her with the words “Tell me the dream, it dispels the fear” [12]

Nanisca: “I am in a jungle, something is out there, a beast

Amenza: What does the beast look like?

Nanisca: I do not know, that is when I wake”.

After the traumatic experience, she makes a determined effort to deliberately forget the pain because of the interaction that happens between the body and the mind. From the above, the theory of motivated forgetting is evident. This is crystal clear when she joins the Agojie warriors and, rises to become the leader. She uses this strategy to block all the traumatic or unpleasant memories, thoughts, or feelings she passed through in the hands of Oba Ade. This is the path she towed to protect herself from the emotional pain instigated by the events that happened to her. However, the pain persisted. This stems from the mind-body relationship. Shortly after the dream, Oba Ade the man who raped her comes in the company of two men to collect their tributes for the Oyo kingdom. His presence opens up the emotional scars she has worked hard for years to deliberately forget; in a few seconds, she recalls how she was tied, and raped severally by General Oba Ade; this swiftly instigates the quest for revenge.

Fig 1: Nanisca rushes into her chambers and falls in front of her gods after the departure of the new Oyo soldier, Oba Ade who comes to collect the tribute (Bythewood, 2022, 42:49)

Fig 2: While still there, she recalls the negative encounters she had with him, where he constantly raped her for days. (Bythewood, 2022, 39:56).

Here, the theory of interactionism plays out vividly because after seeing him, her mind begins to dictate what she had ever wanted, which is to pay Oba Ade back for the emotional trauma he caused her. Thus, when they proceed to drop the tributes, she deliberately engages him in a fight, which was not the plan, but he defeats her, leading her to escape. In a bid to get revenge, she puts the other ladies at risk of dying. When Amenza questions her regarding why she refuses to follow the plan, Nanisca responds “I only have one plan, and that is to take his head”.

This is a pointer to the fact that though, the mind and the body are two separate entities, yet, they are closely connected to the extent that they influence each other. Seeing him again after several years opened up the wounds and emotional scars of the past; thus, her mind began to dictate to her body.

From the scenario, it is clear that mental processes affect human behaviour. Thus, the mind and body-or mental events and physical events- causally influence each other. After her contact with Oba Ade, she begins to nurse revenge in her mind by plotting ways of meeting him again. This points to the fact that emotional scars are difficult to heal. Still trying to deal with the emotional scars which the presence of Oba Ade had opened, Nawi struggles with upholding some of the Agojie’s strict requirement, particularly the “No Men part”. Nawi, instead of strictly keeping to the rules of the Agojie takes up a love interest in a part-Dahomey/part-Brazilian man named Malik Diallo, the son of a slave and a slave trader. He is not quite white and not quite Dahomey. He is on a journey of discovery and growth. Though the romance is short-lived, Nanisca constantly reprimands Nawi for breaking the rules. Nawi’s relationship with Malik brings back the emotional scars in Nanisca, and this explains her frequent outbursts on Nawi.

While they plan on how to match the Oyo Empire in a fight, Malik reveals the plan of the Oyo people to Nawi, who in turn goes to inform Nanisca. She informs Nanisca that the Oyo army is growing their army with other tribes through her interaction with him. However, Nanisca questions her on why she speaks with Malik. This is contained in the dialogue:

Nanisca: Why do you speak with this man, Malik?

Nawi: He spoke to me through the palm line

Nanisca: on the night you swore your loyalty to your sisters, you speak in secret with a slave?

Nawi: He is not a slave, his mother was Dahomey

Nanisca: You defend him. (Notices the knife hanging on her cloth) Is that knife a gift? Where have you been?

Nawi: I have been no where

Nanisca: Come here! You are an Agojie, you cannot be with a man. Do you think you are so special that I will not put you out, because I will. (Raises her head) do not bow your head. I know you are arrogant, she continue to disregard the rules.

Nawi: What do you want from me? I proved myself today, I am the best

Nanisca: It is not enough to be the best. Your arrogance and stupidity will get you caught

Nawi: (Fiercely) I am not you! Izogi told me you were captured, that will never be me

Nanisca: (Soberly) I was raped many times each night. When they come, I only wish to die. They took away all that I know and when I finally escaped, I was with a child. This meant I will have to leave my sisters for ever so I had to hide. When I gave birth, it was a girl, I told Amenza to take her away”.

As seen, berating Nawi and Nawi’s response opened up the emotional scars she had worked hard to forget. The rape she constantly experienced was extraordinarily stressful, and shattered her sense of security. This made it cumbersome for her to deal with the common reactions associated with emotional scars such as anger, sadness and fear. Nanisca is seen struggling with upsetting emotions, memories and anxiety that will not go away. Years after, she carries this childhood trauma into adulthood, setting the stage for further trauma. This is evident in the symptoms she frequently displays which are anger, irritability and mood swings. Nawi’s behaviour was also a trigger for her. Here, Nawi’s behaviour irritates, and infuriates her. This results in her speaking angrily to Nawi. This effect is captured in the words of Ngaage:

Therefore, Nawi’s behaviour acted as a sensory reminder of her past experience. This is evident in the way she flashes back to how she was raped. She re-experienced her previous traumatic experience as if it was happening at the moment, before Nawi.

Still from the above discussion between Nawi and Nanisca, one of the ways to heal from emotional scars is to connect with others. Thus, to heal, Nanisca tells Amenza to take the child away, while she continues to journey with her sisters (The Agojie female soldiers). Connecting with others is a strategy of healing for those with emotional scars. However, after trying hard to forget this scar for many years via suppression, seeing Oba Ade swiftly brings back the memory. She begins to isolate herself which is a dangerous strategy to follow. This explains her anger, and outbursts which are reactions in response to the situation that was out of her control. Nanisca deployed the theory of motivated forgetting (suppression) as a psychological defense mechanism to cope with the threatening and unwanted memory of the constant rape she goes through in the hands of Oba Ade. This explains why she pleads with Amenza to take the baby away when she birthed her. This was to escape the pain and anxiety such memories might elicit if the child is with her. As seen, the emotional trauma which Nanisca experiences occurred as a result of the physically traumatic event (assault and rape) which she passed through in the hands of Oba Ade.

Physical Scars

Physical scars can result from a range of causes which often brings traumatizing memories which are sometimes, difficult to heal than the physical reminders. The memories as conceived in the mind refers to the thoughts, emotions, beliefs, attitudes, and images. For every emotion and thought that is expressed by Nanisca, there is a physical event that instigates it. This simply suggests that there are emotional reactions to physical situations. In the film, the molestation encountered by Nanisca in the hands of Oba Ade is a physical scar because she is tied, hands and legs, and raped every night. This encounter leaves both a physical and emotional scar. Though the film did not reveal this, it can be inferred that Nanisca had physical scars in her pelvic region stemming from the force used by the rapist. The force used by the rapist may have resulted in pelvic floor complaints, which was not relayed to the audience. This explains why the pineal gland still served as a mediator between her body and mind, even after emerging as the leader of the Agojie. This is succinctly captured in the dream she narrates to Amenza when the latter beckons on her to tell her the dream that forces her up, while the night is still young. This is captured in the lines:

Amenza: Tell me about the dream, it dispels the magic if you say the words”

Nanisca: I am in a jungle. Something out there in the darkness, a beast. I can smell its sweat in fear

Amenza: What does the beast look like?

Nanisca: I do not know

Amenza: The dream is a warning; we must ask Legba

Nanisca: (Shows disapproval) that thing is nuts

Amenza: (Consults the sacred oracle looks at Nanisca and says) I see fire, someone from your past.

Nanisca: This is nonsense

Amenza: Go to the alter, leave gifts for the dead. If you do not respect Ifa, respect your own dream.” 

Amenza’s attempt to interpret Nanisca’s dream was a way to gain insight into the unconscious mind of Nanisca.

Freud believes that dreams are a window into the unconscious mind which expresses repressed desires and impulses. Thus, despite trying hard to put the past behind her, it comes back through her dreams. Therefore, ‘seeing herself in a jungle, with something out there in the darkness, which she smells in fear’ is a pointer to the fact that dreams are a key to unlocking repressed and suppressed memories. This is contained in the words of Freud:

Therefore, Nanisca’s dream provides an insight into the happenings in her unconscious mind, hence, a reflection of her unconscious mind. In regards, Freud further states:

Shortly after, in the next scene, while celebrating, the Oyo people arrive Dahomey to collect their yearly tribute. As Oba Ade addresses the king, she looks at his face and recalls how she is raped

Fig 3: Oba Ade asking for the tributes paid to them by the Dahomey people. (Bythewood, 2022, 0:38-27)

Fig 4: Nanisca staring at him with pain in her eyes. (Bythewood, 2022, 39:27).

The memory instigates anger in her which engendered the quest for revenge. While the King s towards Oba Ade, Nanisca remains still, staring at him in anger until King Ghezo turns and beckons on her to walk right behind him. While King Ghezo shows Oba Ade his tributes, his second in command realizes that the tributes are not complete; however, the king responds to him in a sarcastic manner. To conceal the King’s misdemeanour, Oba Ade demands for twenty Agojie young warriors to be added to the tribute. Nanisca quickly selects them and leaves the training ground, followed by her good friend Amenza. When Amenza inquires from her what the problem is, she confesses to the truth of Amenza’s interpretation of the dream she had the previous night. While they approach Oba Ade in his camp, she engages him in a battle which she barely escapes with the help of Nawi. This brings to fore the theory of interactionism which argues that though the mind and the body are separate, there is a causal interaction between the two.

While inspecting Nawi’s body, after the physical training where Nawi emerges the best, she sees a scar on her back. The sight of this scar takes her back memory lane to the emotional torture she passed through in the hands of Oba Ade, who comes to rape her daily when she was a prisoner in the Oyo Empire, and the daughter that was produced from the rape. She quickly moves away from the scene, again, followed by Amenza. Seeing Amenza, she enquires from her who she gave her baby to. She responds and says she gave the baby out to the missionaries.

Through this, we see how events lead Nanisca to recall past memories despite trying hard to forget. We also see how emotions and unconscious desires cause bodily symptoms. This shows the mind-body connection. This simply connotes that our thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and attitudes can positively or negatively affect our physical functioning. To further understand Nanisca’s behaviour, the audience are privy to how she explores, interprets and gives meaning to symbols, in her interaction with Nawi. While interacting with Nawi, she again informs her about her past; how she was raped repeatedly, became pregnant and had to give out the child after leaving her with a scar on the back of the baby’s arm. This was because she didn’t want to let go of her sisters (young warriors).This is contained in the words “After giving birth to the child, I was bleeding, Amenza had to look for help. While she left me with the child, I made a cut at the back of the arm and put a shark tooth” [16]

With this statement, she brings Nawi close and opens the exact place where Nawi has a scar; to Nawi’s surprise, she removes a shark tooth. With this, Nawi moves away with tears in her eyes. The above points to the fact that there is an interplay between social context, emotions and the remembrance and scars. It further helped to promote and tell the audience more about her identity and how her lived experience resulted in scars. This perspective highlights the importance of social context and subjective experiences of individuals in understanding their behaviour.

However, the fact that scars always carry memories with them and are associated with difficult and often painful past is depicted when Nanisca sights a scar on Nawi’s back. The physical scars transported and connected her back to her past. Here, motivated forgetting is used as a means of self-preservation - to protect oneself from the hurt, pain, or anxiety certain memories can cause. If not, these painful memories can become barriers to the growth and development of a person. She deploys suppression by intentionally and consciously forgetting certain information that upon recollection could cause some emotional pain.

Repression, which is another method used in motivated forgetting is also a kind of defence mechanism used by the brain to suppress emotions. However, this lasts for a short time. Here, the brain forgets information without giving a hint, but in the case of Nanisca, the interaction between the mind and the physical actions around her, constantly reminded her of those events. Therefore, the emotional scars emanated from the physical scars and vice versa. Thus, the dream which haunted Nanisca, was revealed through the disobedient Nawi, hence, the key to what ailed her. Therefore, scars have meanings, which to a large extent, interact with the self and identity of a person. They cause mental anguish to the bearer if not handled appropriately.

Conclusion

This chapter explored the film The Woman King as a tale of two scars. It examined the physical and emotional scars evident in the life of the protagonist, focusing on how the physical scars led to the emotional scars and vice versa. It further examined how these scars determine the actions of person. The study deployed the theory of interactionism- mind and body relationship and the theory of motivated forgetting. From the critical analysis done, it is evident that scars take one down memory lane, and cannot be easily forgotten. They leave a long lasting impression which sometimes, create an impact on the life of the bearer, even years after. In all, the film successfully embeds narratives of personal trauma and conflicts with larger systems of oppression.

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2. Shen, Wenke. Chen, Liang, and Tian Fubo. “Research Progress of Scar repair and its influence on physical and Mental Health”. International Journal Burns Trauma; (2021) 11(6): 422- 446
3. Moss, Timothy. P., & Rosser, Ben. “Adult Psychosocial Adjustment to Visible Differences: Physical and Psychosocial Predictors of Variation”. In N. Rumsey & D. Harcourt (Eds), The Oxford handbook of the psychology of appearance Oxford University Press. (2012): 273-292.https://doi.prg/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199580521.013.0022
4. Slattery, Dennis. P. 2000. The Wounded Body, Remembering the Markings of the Flesh. New York: State University of New York Press, 2000.
5. Ngaage & Agius, “The Psychology of Scars: A Mini Review”, 635
6. Ucok, Ozum. (2005) “The Meaning and Appearance in Surviving Breast Cancer”. Human Studies 28, no 3: (2005) 291-316
7. Heil, John. Philosophy of Mind: A Contemporary Introduction. United Kingdom: Routledge, 2013.
8. Lawhead, William. The Philosophical Journey: An Interactive Approach (6<sup>th</sup> ed.). New York: Mc Graw-Hill Education. 2013.
9. Lawhead, “The Philosophical Journey: An Interactive Approach
10. Lawhead, “The Philosophical Journey: An Interactive Approach”
11. Freud, Sigmund. “Motivated Forgetting”. In W. Dennis (Ed.), Readings in General Psychology. Prentice-Hall, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1037/11352-030, 1949, 199-205
    1. Bythewood, Gina Prince. The Woman King. Tristar Pictures/TSG Entertainment II. 2022
    2. Ngaage and Agius. The Psychology of Scars Mini Review, 634
12. Freud, Sigmund, “Repression”, in On the History of the Psycho-Analytic Movement, Papers on Metapsychology and Other Works, Vol.14 (1914-16) of The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, ed. James Strachey, London: Hogarth and the Institute of Psychoanalysis, (1915/2001), 141-58.
13. Freud, “Repression”, 142.
14. Bythewood “The Woman King”

One App, Too Many: Netflix and Glocalization of Audience of Contemporary Yoruba-Language Films

Azeez Akinwumi Sesan (PhD)
Department of Theatre Arts,
Osun State University,
Osun State, Nigeria
Orcid: 0000-0001-8217-7157
Email: azeezakinwumisesan@gmail com

Introduction

This article focuses attention specifically on Yoruba films as a segment of African films for two main reasons. Firstly, the evolutionary trends and development of the Nigerian film industry (now named Nollywood) are linked to the resilience and creative ingenuity of Yoruba theatre practitioners and filmmakers. Secondly, the production index of Nigerian films in cinemas, video films and online channels reveals more of Yoruba films in contents, cultural representation and identity construction. Following these observations, the present writer explores the process of maturation of Yoruba films from the basic theatrical foundation through the celluloid/ television era to the contemporary stage of film streaming on Netflix and other online channels. The present writer, therefore, conceptualizes Yoruba-language films to mean the films that deploy holistically the use of Yoruba language as the medium of communication and interaction for acute [re] presentation of Yoruba cultural heritage.

It is also important to highlight the fact that the Yoruba language has become transnational with speakers across different settlements and locations across Africa and Europe. Apart from the aboriginal speakers of Yoruba language in the South-West Nigeria – Oyo, Ondo, Ogun, Ekiti, Osun and Lagos, there are also speakers of the language in Lome, Porto Novo, Brazil, the USA, and other parts of Europe. In this line of thought, the present writer upholds the view of Ojo (2006, 116) that:

Apart from the formal process of the spread and learning of Yoruba language, there is also an informal process through the apparatuses of popular culture such as Yoruba films. The present article discusses how Netflix, a film streaming channel, has recently contributed to the spread and learning of Yoruba language among the Yoruba film audience in the diaspora and at home.

Before the Silver Screen Took Over

Before the advent of television, Western Nigeria Television (WNTV), Yoruba theatre practitioners such as Hubert Ogunde, Duro Ladipo and Kola Ogunmola were propagating and sustaining the spread of Yoruba language and culture across Africa and to some places in north America and Europe. Their arts and dramaturgies were rooted strictly in Yoruba cultural identities in language and costumes, choreographies and props as found in some of the mythico-historical plays such as Oba Koso and Moremi. The travelling theatre troupes have extensively and consciously drawn upon, and exploited traditional Yoruba folklore, performing arts and poetry and the resources and properties of the Yoruba language (Jeyifo 1984, 5) [2]. Consequently, the indigenous and non-Yoruba speaking audiences developed admiration for these performances.

The phase of cultural production in theatre practices was tedious and demanding because these theatre practitioners had to rehearse for months. Yet, the performers were determined to promote their arts and professions to the local audience and other audiences in the diaspora. Among the challenges that these artistes faced at the period were finance, social stigma for being artistes and restrictions by the colonial government as well as hazards of travelling long distances to perform their plays. Despite all these problems, these artistes were resolute to continue with their arts and performances.

In the 1940s, Glover Memorial Hall, Lagos became the hub of theatrical activities (Olubomehin, 2012) [3], (Merengwa, 2023) [4] At this time, popular artistes such as Hubert Ogunde had the option of having a stationary performance at the Glover Memorial Hall in Lagos, to audiences of varied demographic features along the line of race, nationality, age as well as social and economic status, or, having itinerary performances by taking their plays to different locations across and beyond Nigeria where there were non-Yoruba speaking audiences. These artistes opted for the two options but with much priority given to itinerary performances by taking their plays and operas to audiences in the northern part of Nigeria, Ghana and the United Kingdom. With the itinerant performances, Yoruba theatre practitioners were promoting Yoruba language and culture among their different audiences. The non-Yoruba speaking audience was equally fascinated with the spectacles and aesthetics of the stage performances. These practitioners, perhaps, were able to retain and sustain the attention of their indigenous and non-Yoruba speaking audiences because they painstakingly researched into Yoruba cultural practices, myths and belief systems. While commenting on this development with reference to Duro Ladipo’s play, Moremi, Ogunbiyi (1981, 337) avers thus:

Ogunbiyi’s observation suggest the quality of research in the production and performance process of indigenous performances of Duro Ladipo. The quality of research of the plays of these theatre practitioners might have prompted the collaboration they enjoyed with some Europeans such as Ulli Beier and Susan Wanger.

… And the Silver Screen Came

Although the first screening of film was done in Nigeria in 1903 by Balboa and Company, this experience could not be described as indigenous film making in Nigeria. The screening of the film was part of the ploy of the colonial government to sustain its hold on the colony called Nigeria. This film, among others, was an attempt by the colonial master “to justify their colonial mission in Africa by reinforcing colonialist stereotypes and the notion of European superiority” (Fofana 2018, 350) [6] Based on the paradigm construction of the cinema screen of the period between 1900s and 1950s, film critics and scholars such as Ayakoroma (2014) [7] and Layiwola (2014) [8] have stated that 1959 offered a redirection to the production and consumption of theatrical performances on the silver screen. Western Nigeria Television (WNTV) was established in 1959 and this development changed the theatrical landscape of Yoruba theatre and films. Also, few theatre practitioners, such as Ola Balogun, were experimenting with the use of celluloid for the articulation of their creative ingenuity in film exhibition and distribution. Thus, there was a complementary relationship between television and celluloid cinema. This view is consistent with Ayakoroma’s that:

This complementary relationship is found in the artistry, participants and the audience composition within the shores of Nigeria. Duro Ladipo, Yemi Elebuibon, Oyin Adejobi and Ola Omonitan devoted more of their attention to television drama. Hubert Ogunde, Ola Balogun and Adeyemi Afolayan (Ade Love) showed more concern for celluloid film production. The choices of these practitioners for artistic expression did not have considerable impact on the size and composition of the audience. The only basic difference in the size and composition of the audience was that the audience could view the television dramas at the same time in different locations across the south-western part of Nigeria.

The television screen of the period had limited coverage given the nature and scope of the transmission spectrum and electromagnetic field strength, which usually affected the signal waves of these television stations – WNTV (later known as NTA), Broadcasting Corporation of Oyo State (BCOS) and Ogun Television (OGTV) – that televised Yoruba television dramas between the 1960s and late 1980s, before the evolution of the home video films that redefined the roadmap and the audience size of Yoruba-language films. As a child, the present writer enjoyed more Yoruba television dramas such as Koootu Asipa, Omo Araye Le, K’ogun Ma Ja’lu, Efunsetan Aniwura, Koto Aye, Opa Aje, Moremi, Ekuro Oloja and Yanponyonrin. In the 1980s, a very popular television drama on Broadcasting Corporation of Oyo State was Jimoh Aliu’s Arelu. The play was usually televised at night and any time there was power outage, people would trek miles to watch the play where there was electricity supply through a generator (Sesan 2016, 114) [10]. With the paradigm shift from the theatre stage to the silver screen, the present writer, therefore, is of the view that television and cinema could still be described as the media of limited audience (MLA). This is because the audience of the Yoruba television dramas and some of the celluloid films were strictly Yoruba speakers within the spectra of Yoruba communities in the south-western part of Nigeria. The basic issues in the transition from theatre stage to the silver screen are highlighted below:

• Similar performance aesthetics were adopted by the practitioners that moved from the stage to the screen. This was usually reflected in the genres, performance tropes and overall dramatic oeuvres of the troupes.
• Analogue broadcasting mode was adopted by these television stations and this limited the scope of the viewership of the television dramas of the period.
• The media of television and celluloid cinema still offered limited coverage for the audience size and composition. Thus, the media could still be described as the media of limited audience (MLA).

Towards the end of 1980s and at the beginning of 1990s, there was a new direction to the utilization of silver screen for the artistic and aesthetic expressions of Yoruba-language films. The concern here is not to repeat the sociological and historical factors that motivated the transition from celluloid film production to video film production. This has been critically discussed by Ayakoroma (2014) [11], Adeoti (2014) [12], Ogundeji (2014) [13] and Sesan (2017) [14]. The concern here, however, is to discuss and explore how this transition has contributed to the expansion of the audience size and composition of Yoruba-language films within Nigeria and beyond the shores of the country. Following the success of the trial of Kenneth Nnebue towards the making of video films, other producers and marketers followed suite and in no time, there was an explosion in the production of home videos via video home system (VHS), video compact disc (VCD) and digital video disc (DVD) that ran from 1990s till 2010s before the revolution in digital broadcasting of Yoruba films on platforms such as DSTV, Startimes, GoTV and StarSat.

The home videos extended the frontiers of the patronage and accessibility to the texts of Yoruba films. This is because a VHS/VCD/DVD was usually handy and compact for the use of audiences of different social and cultural backgrounds. The crop of film marketers that emerged in Lagos particularly at Alaba International Market and later Army Arena at Oshodi in Lagos made efforts to have sales representatives and outlets in some places outside of the Yoruba-speaking communities. Also, some of these sales representatives usually sold the home video discs to travelers at motor parks. This made possible the “travelling” of Yoruba-language video films beyond the shores of the Yoruba territories. The spread of the Yoruba-language home videos was also made possible with the nefarious activities of film pirates that pillaged the legitimate efforts of film producers. These pirates sprang up in different corners of the country and in the diaspora. Consequently, Yoruba-language films were made available to willing buyers at ridiculously low prices. This view is consistent with Okome’s (2016, 111) that:

It should also be noted that an important factor which aroused the interest of non-Yoruba speakers in the watching of these films is the English subtitle of some of the films produced in this era. At the international level, some Nigerians who travel abroad usually smuggled a collection of copies of Yoruba-language films along with them to be sold at their respective destinations. The present writer, therefore, aligns its view with Smart-Babalola’s (2008, 222) [16] that “travelers and local merchants fill their bags in Lagos upon journeys abroad and video shops in London receive cargo packages of latest releases weekly”. There was also the activities of video film rental shops across different geographical locations in the country, including rural and semi-urban locations. In nearly all these rental shops, Yoruba-language video films were always visibly present. All these factors contributed to the popularity of Yoruba-language video films beyond the shores of Yoruba communities.

The present writer now returns to the significant contribution of digital broadcasting to the popularization of Yoruba-language video films. Sequel to the Geneva Conference of 2006, the Nigerian government led by late Umar Musa Yar’Adua set the motion in place for the migration of Nigeria’s broadcast media from analogue broadcasting to digital broadcasting, with the deadline date of June 17, 2012. Analogue broadcasting is the use of waves to transmit pictures and sounds while digital broadcasting deals with the use of digital signals or the conversion of data into series of binary numbers in order to produce better quality picture and sound (Acholonu 2018, 104-105) [17]. To this end, many government-owned and privately-owned television stations were making efforts towards reaching global audiences. Prior to the efforts of the Nigerian government to migrate from analogue broadcasting to digital broadcasting, Multichoice, a multinational company based in South Africa, had commenced digital broadcasting in Nigeria in 1994, and among the programs on the TV platform was the screening of Yoruba-language films. An important point to be deduced here is that digital broadcasting widens the audience size and composition of Yoruba-language films as people from different geographical locations and socio-cultural backgrounds can view the same Yoruba-language film text at the same time despite the time difference across the globe.

Startimes also launched its operations in 2010 with a number of stations such as Orisun, Startimes Yoruba, Nigbati, NTA Yoruba and Kaftan Yoruba that screened Yoruba-language films and other Yoruba-language programs. Among the major opportunities of digital broadcasting of Yoruba-language films is the erasure of fixation of monotony and rigidity associated with analogue broadcasting. To this end, the present writer aligns its view with Odunlami’s (2020, 232) that:

The deduction from the above is that digital broadcasting extends the frontiers of viewership of Yoruba-language films thereby underlining the glocalization (the presence of global and local audience) of Yoruba-language video films. To this end, the media of home videos and digital broadcasting can be described as the media of wider audience (MWA).

The video films and digital broadcasting era of Yoruba-language films included:

• The emergence of VHS/VCD/DVD made Yoruba-language films available beyond the shores of Yoruba-speaking communities at home and in the diaspora.
• The nefarious activities of film pirates and “smugglers” also increased the distribution network of Yoruba-language films although illegally.
• The digital broadcasting of the era promoted easy access to Yoruba-language films within and beyond Yoruba communities.
• The Yoruba-language video films that are broadcast digitally usually have English subtitles that make them more accessible to non-Yoruba speaking audience.

As digital broadcasting was ongoing, there was gradual movement to online viewership of Yoruba-language films with the internet revolution. Some Yoruba-language film producers embraced the opportunities offered by the internet to start with the streaming of their films on YouTube channels dedicated for such purpose.

Among the YouTube channels dedicated to the streaming of Yoruba-language films are ApataTv, Afrohood, Yorubaplus, Libra TV and Iroko TV. In his submission, Alamu (2021) averred that YouTube channels and other social media platforms widen the scope of the distribution, marketing and viewership of Yoruba-language films. One important point that also needs to be stated here is that online streaming of films via YouTube channels has reduced the menace of film piracy in Nigeria. This development has increased the return-on-investment (ROI) of Yoruba-language film makers. Besides, the filmmakers only upload their films online, without going through the financial rigors of burning the films on compact discs (CDs). In the age of online streaming of films via YouTube channels, some foreign investors such as Netflix, Prime and Showmax have also made inroads into Nigeria for the streaming of Nollywood films including Yoruba-language films.

The rest of this article pays attention to the significant influence of Netflix on the glocalization of Yoruba film audiences. This App is very popular with most Nigerian movie lovers owing to its accessibility and affordability.

Netflix and the Glocalization of Audience

Netflix, a digital platform of film distribution and screening, started as an offline rental and distribution outlet dealing in VCDs and DVDs of movies. Reed Hastings, the CEO of Netflix is a risk-taker who often gets inspired to explore a new trend of business at all times. Robinson and Oltersdorf (2013, 2) offer explanation on how Netflix was founded:

Following his rhetorical question, Hasting established a film rental outlet with the principle of “no late fees” in 1998. As a new entrant into the business, Netflix suspended the use of boxes to ship DVDs and VHS tapes to the intending and prospective customers of the company. The company began with “the mail-order DVD model” whereby customers subscribed to movies online with search criteria of titles, actors, directors or genres. After the online payment, the customers got their films, mailed to them. This model set Netflix ahead of others in the competitive market and it also prepared the company for the prospects and problems of digital cinema. As part of its business strategy, Netflix acquired multiple versions of a single title and this made it possible for the company to take care of its customers’ needs.

As part of innovative approach of Netflix to sustain itself in business, the company introduced the streaming of movies placing it in stiff competition with cable television that witnessed a drop in its customer base. Robinson and Oltersdorf (2013, 5-6) offer an explanation for Netflix’s operational streaming model. They aver that:

Since its adoption of the streaming model in 2011, Netflix has surpassed other competitors.

Netflix streaming services expanded internationally, starting in 2010 with Canada, and are available in over 190 countries (Schmidt 2020, 2) [21]. With this expansion in coverage, Netflix breaks the barrier of access to global films.

In 2016, Netflix commenced operations in Nigeria and since then, it has streamed some of Kunle Afolayan’s movies such as October 1, The Figurine and Anikulapo. With due consideration for the economic situation of Nigeria, Netflix makes its pricing pocket-friendly thereby giving movie lovers the opportunities to have unlimited access to movies of their choice within their monthly subscriptions. Habeeb Onawole (2021) of gizmochina online news magazine reports on Netflix’s pricing plan in Nigeria. In his report, he averred that:

Prior to the announcement, Netflix offered three plans in Nigeria – a Basic Plan that cost ₦2,900 (~$7) per month and was available to watch on a phone, tablet, computer, or TV in SD (480p) resolution; a Standard Plan priced at ₦3,600 (~$9) per month that bumped the resolution to FHD; and a Premium Plan priced at ₦4,400 (~$11) that allowed users to stream in Ultra HD (4K) and HDR. The new mobile plan costs ₦1,200 (~$3) per month, about the same price as the cheapest monthly data plans offered by mobile network operators in the country. However, we expect some or all of these operators to announce special data plans that are designed around the new Netflix plan. [22]

The pricing regime of Netflix shows that the company is determined to sustain wide coverage of the viewership of Nollywood and Yoruba-language films. With a single subscription, subscribers can access Yoruba-language films on different platforms such as smartphones, tablets, computers or television sets. Similarly, the mode of operation of the company (Netflix) has greatly impacted on the quality of Yoruba-language films in terms of content and the entire process of cinematography. Among the ground-breaking Yoruba films that have been streamed on Netflix are Jagun Jagun, Anikulapo, Ayinla, Ololade and Mokalik. These films reveal Yoruba cultural episteme through effective use of the language (Yoruba) as the linguistic code. The quality of Yoruba-language films found on Netflix is, perhaps due to the regulation and control measures put in place by the company. Agina and Hediger (2020) [23 ]averred that Netflix takes proactive measures in the engagement of Yoruba filmmakers, with proper screening of the film script and the film equipment to be used. In this line of thought, these critics, Agina and Hediger, aver thus:

The quality of the Yoruba-language films on Netflix platforms is a product of the critical efforts put in place by the company. Consequently, this situation has helped it to attract, retain and sustain large audience size for Yoruba-language films across the globe. It is based on this observation that this article discusses the benefits of glocalization of audience of Yoruba-language films.

Following the argument of Jedlowski (2022) [25], the present writer is of the view that Netflix’s distribution of Nollywood films has bridged the cultural gaps between Nigerians at home and in the diaspora. The critic (Jedlowski) attributed this to the fidelity of the film contents to the socio-cultural realities/experiences of the source culture. In the context of this article, the source culture is Yoruba. In the distribution and streaming of Yoruba-language films, Netflix has broken the barriers of space and time.

Across the globe, Yoruba people at home and in the diaspora have access to Yoruba-language films at affordable prices. Given the quality of the film contents and technical inputs, these global and local audience usually have value for their money. Yoruba film audiences in the diaspora are usually exposed to Yoruba cultural practice and language aesthetics through the quality of Yoruba-language films that are streamed on Netflix. For instance, Yoruba-language films such as Jagun Jagun and Anikulapo have attracted critical attention of film reviewers and critics across the globe. The Yoruba film audience in the diaspora have psychological connection with their aboriginal culture back at home. Similarly, the effective use of Yoruba language in the film makes it serve as a good tool for teaching Yoruba language to those who have been earlier separated from Yoruba language and culture. Olubunmi (2017, 65) is of the view that “it is no gainsaying then that Nollywood‘s production of historical classics in undiluted Nigerian Yoruba language is playing the nationalist roles of rescuing and preserving the rich but threatened Yoruba language and its culture”.[26]. Thus, the intervention of Netflix in this linguistic and cultural crusade is timely. Similarly, Netflix is able to attract, retain and sustain its non-Yoruba speaking audience because of the near-native competence in the translation of the film language from Yoruba to English subtitles. This surpassed what was obtainable during the home video era of Yoruba-language film production.

• Netflix improved on the standard of Yoruba-language films that are streamed on its online platforms by regulating the contents and the film equipment to be used.
• The App is user-friendly thereby making it accessible and affordable to different categories of local and global audience of Yoruba-language films.
• The Yoruba-language films that are streamed on Netflix are usually durable and they attract, retain and sustain the interests of Yoruba audience at home and in the diaspora.
• The Yoruba-language films on Netflix are properly subtitled in English language thereby making the films accessible non-Yoruba speaking audience.
• Paramountly, Netflix is a platform that can be described as the medium of wider audience (MWA) with the possibility of attending to the entertainment needs of different categories of audience across the globe.

Conclusion

The present article discusses how Netflix has contributed to the glocalization of Yoruba-language film audience. The idea of glocalization is based on the accessibility of the local and global audience of Yoruba-language films. Since Netflix is a recent development in film distribution and exhibition, the present article reviews the previous media of Yoruba film distribution and exhibition most especially from the stage of celluloid and television production of Yoruba-language dramas and films. The article also discusses the contributions of digital broadcasting to the advancement of Yoruba-language films. The sociological and historical approaches adopted in the article reveal the strength and weakness of each of these media of distribution and exhibition. Netflix has come with proactive measures such as proper screening of film scripts and the equipment used for filming to ensure that Yoruba-language films appeal to the audience irrespective of nationality, race, place and time.

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Bridging the Gap between Archival and Traditional Sources of History and AI in Nigeria

Nkereuwem David Edemekong, PhD
Department of History and International Studies
University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State
nkereuwemdavid@uniuyo.edu.ng
08023547650

Introduction

The study of any discipline begins with the study of the history of that discipline. One of the reasons for this is to give students knowledge of the roots of their discipline and a bit of a narrative as to how it has evolved from century to century. One thing this introductory historical discourse does, inadvertently, is to give students a sense of belonging and to reveal the pioneers of the discipline. This in turn leads younger initiates to develop certain habits, lifestyle patterns and choices to enable them to have a sense of value and honour for their calling and profession.

In the Department of History and International Studies, University of Uyo, Nigeria, faculty from the postgraduate level to the undergraduate level have insisted that except where there are insurmountable challenges and constraints which should be determined by the project or dissertation or thesis supervisor, a researcher should make all reasonable efforts to access valid and credible sources. Similarly, they have insisted from the postgraduate to the undergraduate levels that bearing any unforeseen obstacles or limitations at the discretion of the supervisor, it is essential for a researcher, to exhort all avenues in pursuit of valid and dependable primary sources.

Primary sources as can be deduced from our example, usually have a significant amount of evidence to throw up. Thus works that have primary sources as their root source are often seen as being more authentic and objective. It is also easier to break new ground with primary sources, and for a researcher to use these sources to make a meaningful contribution. We, however, live in a fast-evolving world and the demand and tastes of today's generation mean that most information is stored in the Cloud (a literal expression for vital information stored in limitless internet space). Apart from most information being stored in the Cloud, a good chunk of information exchange and interaction is done on the internet with Monster websites like GOOGLE, FACEBOOK, LINKEDIN, RESEARCHGATE, ACADEMIA, X, INSTAGRAM, CLUBHOUSE, WIKIPEDIA , YOUTUBE, ZOOM, SKYPE, WHATSAPP, MSN , YAHOO and others, dominating the landscape, and storing megatons of information that is particularly useful for research.

There are, however, challenges in accessing information from secondary sources, particularly the internet. One of the primary challenges with secondary sources and particularly internet sources is authenticity and credibility. The internet majors on entertainment, and indeed about 65 percent of the websites and content on the internet major on the latter. However, internet sources can sometimes be shockingly lacking in authenticity and originality. Secondary sources and internet sources can also be subject to a lot of embellishment and falsification. This generation of historical researchers however, (Generation X and Generation Z) can be unduly keen on using internet sources partly because of ease of access and Artificial Intelligence tools. The researcher, while conducting this research, reviewed a number of websites that provide Artificial Intelligence (AI) for the conduct of research from inception to conclusion. While the outcome of the work produced by Artificial Intelligence software is commendable, it tends to weaken cognitive abilities and capacity for research and at times defeat the essential reason why lecturers are in the University.

For the tech savvy individual, there are great benefits in the use of secondary sources. With advancements in educational technology, most universities in Nigeria have adopted plagiarism software, particularly at the postgraduate level, to make sure that their postgraduate students academic work is an original contribution to knowledge. Prior to the advent of Artificial Intelligence Technology (AI) it was possible for a postgraduate student in the University of Calabar for instance to travel and fraudulently extract work in Zamfara State, for instance, and present as his own, with the belief that it was highly improbable for the supervisors, the postgraduate authorities and the degree awarding establishments to run into the original source documents. When this ugly trend continued for a long period of time, well-travelled professors and academics who had seen the corrective consequence of plagiarism checks began to agitate through the Nigerian University Commission (NUC) for the practice to be introduced in Nigerian Universities. This has been done and postgraduate schools across Nigeria are approaching hundred percent (100% ) implementation. This has had the attendant consequence of producing cutting edge research at the postgraduate level.

ALGORITHMS AND THE ADVANCEMENT OF ACADEMIC SOFTWARE AND SOCIAL MEDIA

Algorithms are a process or set of rules to be followed in calculations or other problem-solving operations, especially by a computer. It is quite useful in the design of the analytics segment of academic websites and in organizing the timeline of social media websites based on likes, favourites and other interests. According to Bolaji, T. K. Chandra Sekhara Rao Annavarapu and Annushe Bablani, social media (SM) provide the most widespread and rapid data generation applications on the internet. Currently in Nigeria, there is a strong insistence by academics, scholars and researchers on publishing only in Journals that are visible online. Journals that had only paper editions are making massive efforts to build world class websites visible on the World Wide Web. Algorithms are also used extensively on research sites. Thus, beyond the study of Mathematics the study of statistics has become very useful to the historian. Thus for a specific, narrow search the researcher needs a fairly accurate search engine to extract information that can be cited internationally.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Developing Technical Skills

In today's (2025) world there are a gamut of AI websites that are constantly being upgraded, reviewed and updated to meet the ever demands, needs and tastes of its end users. One of the most recent that shows great promise for mass usage is samwell.ai , a modern and trendy AI website that helps with referencing and plagiarism checks.

The art of independent analysis can be stifled in a young scholar who completely relies on AI software. What is particularly disturbing to the arts and humanities community in the University of Uyo is that at times students go as far as using two to three AI websites to do their work. While one website gathers the information another processes it into an assignment, a thesis or a dissertation, while yet another helps the student clean up the trail so the lecturer cannot identify it as a material produced by Artificial Intelligence (AI). Hence the question is often asked if a student would go through all that effort to create material or to create a work that evades accusations of plagiarism, why not take the pain and effort to do the right thing and learn.

A situation where a researcher tenaciously sticks to either primary sources or secondary sources without providing appropriate reason should be rigorously discouraged. Thus, in conducting any historical research undertaking in the 21<sup>st</sup> century the words academic expedience must be repeated over and over. The research undertaking of the 21<sup>st</sup> century must thus be a combination of primary sources, secondary sources and where necessary assistance of AI software and websites. This, in the view of the researcher will not only make the work of the scholar balanced, but it will also enable future researchers improve on the existing work and possibly break new ground. Enabling upcoming scholars to break new ground and make advances in the study of history is one of the challenges of the historical profession in the 21st century.

At every level a student is supposed to make an original contribution to knowledge. When this and other requirements are not met, the degree is not usually awarded. High quality research work can be difficult, tedious and rigorous and it is usually the committed, diligent, honest and sincere student that succeeds at it. Largely because of the rigour, and at times a lack of diligence and initiative on the part of the student, there are usually attempts by students to circumvent the process.

The Future of the Archive in Nigeria

An archive is a place where public records or historical documents are preserved. An archive usually contains letters, reports, minutes, registers, maps, photographs and films, digital files and sound recordings. There are two main types of archives. There are the Government Archives and National Archives and the Organizational Archives. An archival centre working under the government and storing government documents is known as a government archive. It usually contains government related documents. The Organizational Archive is usually the storage facility of a large organization like United Bank for Africa PLC or First Bank of Nigeria. There are also religious archives and personal archives. The principal function of the Government Archives are the collection, management and preservation of government and historical records.

What should rather be considered is digitalizing the Archives so that information can be requested for and extracted remotely without a compulsory visit to the archives due to expedience. This will make the public's association to the National Archives less strenuous and consequentially there will be an upsurge in investigation into varying issues of National importance and significance. This will have the intended consequence of providing answers to a number of pressing National historical questions. This digitalization of the National Archives can be achieved if competent hands are brought on board to handle the project and if responsible amounts of money are set aside for the cause. The author of this paper thus as a matter of priority, encourages the Federal Government to embark on the digitalization of all its National documents and make the bulk of this document available on demand after due and diligent online registration. That way, the works of first and second generation Historians like Kenneth Dike, E. J. Alagoa, Emmanuel Ayandele, Okon Edet Uya, Monday Efiong Noah, Obaro Ikime, FajSaburi Oladeni Biobaku, Akinjide Osuntokun, Adiele Eberechukwu Afigbo, Bala Usman, Tekena Tamunu, Waziri Jinadu, Erim Odey Erim, Toyin Falola, Monday Abasiattai will be revisited, re-explored and revised with the benefit of hindsight and emerging facts. This will consequently do a world of good for the development of History as a profession and discipline in Nigeria.

It is also the humble submission of the author of this paper that Nigeria can do with at least six or seven geopolitically dispersed National Archives. Apart from establishing new archival centers there should be some sort of interconnectivity among the archives.

Bridging the Gap Between Archival Sources and Modern Information Technology Software and Websites

A research work or undertaking that carries both primary and secondary sources usually has a balanced outlook to it. In keeping up with changing times there must be training, workshops and seminars geared at helping academics detect plagiarism and fraud that is generated by Artificial Intelligence. This must be done very rigorously and deliberately as the current generation seeking first degrees in institutions of higher learning, Generation X and Z have been jocularly called the social media generation by the older generations partly as a testimony to the fact that the bulk of their life is lived online. Dr. Myles Munroe described the generation X and Z as the sight and sound generation indicating that they learn more by seeing and hearing than by reading as was the case with the preceding generations given the abundance of audio visual videos, comedy skits, documentaries and reels on almost any subject of amusement. The telecommunication giants in Nigeria, and indeed around the world, have been quick to cash in on the rave, with the sale of data and data bundles becoming a mega money spinning international business.

With the current mobile phone giants like Apple, Samsung, Tecno, Itel, Huawei, Infinix, Nokia and Alcatel continually perfecting the act of generating and responding to customer feedback and producing bigger and better brands every year, there is bound to be a massive upsurge in the quantity and quality of evidence available online. It thus behooves on the historian to quickly adapt to changing realities and evolve teaching methods to enable the historian to sift through the plethora of audio visual evidence available online when looking for historical evidence. It is the position of this article that new and current audio-visual learning should be slowly and carefully integrated into the curriculum to make learning more pleasant and pleasurable.

At this point in this research undertaking, it is important to emphasize and reiterate that for the gap to be bridged between archival sources and archival research and modern information technology methods, ease of access must be promoted. Please note that ease of access is not translated as looseness of access. Researchers should as a matter of statutory duty fill comprehensive forms that reveal their identity, vocation, purpose of the research and some binding indemnity against the misuse of the information. In the forms for documentation they should be made to surrender their National Identity Number (NIN) as currently issued by the National Identity Management Commission (NIMC).

Researchers can also be humbly and politely requested to furnish the archives, institutes, departments, agencies, commission or ministry with a copy of their completed research undertaking that can be stored in a repository to assist a future researcher pursuing a similar objective. These completed research works extracted, retrieved and stored can form some sort of Library, serve as some sort of acknowledgement of the resources or the information available in the archive, department or agency and the role it played in the scholars research undertaking. This polite academic practice will ensure that the data and evidence available for research is ever expanding and ever increasing and that subsequent research becomes more and more cutting edge.

The Future of the Private and Commercial Archive

In Nigeria today, one sector stands heads and shoulders above all others in the storage, filing and archiving of information both in hard copy and soft digitally retrieved copies, and that sector is the banking and finance sector. One reason for this is to stand indemnified and above fault or reproach, in the event of a lawsuit by a client or customer. Due to this very important concern, the information gathering process is very tedious, detailed and rigorous. The scenarios of customers and clients complaints are varied and for want of better phraseology, schizophrenic. Thus, based on hindsight, the information gathering and storage mechanism in the banking industry is constantly being revised and is ever evolving. Close on the heels of the banking industry is the civil service at both the national and state levels. In some digitally compliant ministries, departments and agencies, within the hour it is possible to request for and have extracted documents, minutes, and gazettes from the 1960's and 1970's.

In discussing or elaborating on the future of the private or commercial archive the question is often asked as to why it is important for commercial enterprises to maintain good, standard records on their staff and their commercial dealings. The world of employment and job search is one rife with a lot of falsification and misleading claims. The average young job seeker in Nigeria would be quick to tell you that most admirable and juicy job portfolios are advertised for people with significant years of work experience and years of sterling, cognate service. Since work experience is a requirement for good well-paying jobs, the desperate and impulsive are wont to falsify their work experience or even their academic credentials. Thus any commercial organization worth its salt usually maintains a good verification mechanism and a good archive that stores discreetly information about its staff and its daily organizational dealings. This helps with documentation, proof of track record claims, evidence against legal liability and documented information that helps staff with referencing needs in future places of employment. It is thus important that any reasonably sizeable place of employment maintain decent and accurate records on its daily, monthly, quarterly, bi-annual and annual business dealings.

It is also important that the museums that house countless display of our rich and unique cultural heritage be kept in pristine condition and be funded for their maintenance and upkeep. This will go a long way in preserving our collective past and ensure that generation after generation has a sense of belonging.

Conclusion

It can thus be stated that a healthy combination of primary and secondary sources, where these are available, make for a balanced work. Primary sources are closer to the originating source and thus help give the work a strong objective base while secondary sources are distilled information and more readily available. Primary sources include oral sources from eyewitnesses, archeological and archival materials while secondary sources include textbooks, journal articles, internet sources, newspapers. This article posits that in the 21st century it is important to bridge the gap between archival sources and the new digitalized sources that are more popular with the younger generation. This article also posits that it is important for lecturers, tutors and academics to be familiar with the new wave of AI software and websites now readily available to students to be able to track and stop new variants of academic fraud.

It is noted by the researcher that overreliance on Artificial Intelligence software and websites tend to breed a lack of initiative and deprive the students of the arts and humanities invaluable opportunities to develop the power of analysis. Thus, in the long run, students who rely heavily on AI are at a loss and are unwittingly short changing themselves. It is hence advised that heavy use be limited to senior and mature scholars. These tools, in the hands of a mature scholar can see an amazing amount of work completed. It is advisable that lecturers and academics become familiar with these applications not just for the work benefit they can derive from them but to also be able to track academic fraud and plagiarism.The private and commercial archive thus has a prominent and vibrant future in Nigeria. With regards to the already existing National Archives, it was stated that there should be ease of access after due verification was conducted on the researcher.

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