Vol. XXXIII, Issue 1: Winter 2026 - Ancient Egypt: A Tribute to Cheikh Anta Diop (1923-1986) and Christopher Ehret (1941- 2025)

Table of Contents

• Editorial: Prof. Gloria Emeagwali
• Smangele Evidence Gumede: Reclaiming Epistemological Sovereignty- Unpacking the African Roots of Global Knowledge
• Amon Saba Saakana: Kemet (Kmt) and Art
• Gloria Emeagwali: Review of Ehret, Christopher. Ancient Africa: A Global History to 300CE. Princeton, 2023.

Editorial

Fascination with ancient Egypt came to a peak in the second week of January 2026, when the world’s leading You Tuber and streamer, Darren Jason Watkins, also known as IShowSpeed, visited Egypt. Visits to the Sphinx, and later the newly opened Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM) followed, and forty five million viewers around the world were exposed to a moment of ancient Egyptian history. This issue of Africa Update is a tribute to two scholars who have given us tremendous insights into aspects of this history, and African history in general .

 Cheikh Anta Diop (1923 -1986) was a pioneer in recognizing the significance of ancient Egypt for African history, cultural interconnections between ancient Egypt and the rest of Africa, and Africa’s contribution to global knowledge. Among his works in English are The African Origin of Civilization ( 1974), The Cultural Unity of Black Africa (1978), Civilization or Barbarism (1981), and Precolonial Black Africa(1988). Senegal, his country of birth, honored the sage by naming its premier university after him. More recently, the Metropolitan Museum of Art paid homage to Diop in The -African – Origin- of- Civilization exhibition of twenty-one pairings of artifacts from different regions of Africa, including ancient Egypt, over five millennia. This took place between December 2021 and October 2024. Hopefully this exhibit would usher in a new era of truth, commonsense and rationality, in future exhibits, whereby artifacts from ancient Egypt are displayed within the African Gallery and the interconnections between ancient Egypt and the rest of Africa, fully acknowledged.

In Ancient Africa: A Global History to 300 CE (2023), Christopher Ehret, a Distinguished Research Professor at UCLA came to the same conclusion as Diop on what he entitled “The Africanity of Ancient Egypt.” Ehret arrived at his conclusions from historical linguistics research and archaeology, his fields of specialization. His lectures on ancient Egypt were delivered at the Hutchins Center, Harvard University, in the context of the Huggins Lecture Series. These lectures took place November, 2019. https://www.youtube.com/live/S_DD4nmyoss?si=Jghw6c0yP5XVrWQH

 Other books by the scholar include: A Historical Comparative Reconstruction of Nilo-Saharan. Cologne: Rudiger Koppe Verlag, 2001; The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2002; History and the Testimony of Language. University of California Press, 2011.

In this issue of Africa Update, Dr. Smangele Evidence Gumede of the University of Kwa Zulu Natal, South Africa, writes on one of the themes that Diop initiated, namely, the African Roots of Global Knowledge. She provides a rich conceptual framework on the subject and raises interesting issues on the way forward for research in the field. Dr. Saakana’s article throws light on aspects of ancient Egyptian history and its significant impact on Greek, Roman and contemporary art, including surrealism, and Christian religious iconography. The issue also contains a brief review of Ehret’s final book publication of 2023.

Special thanks go to the contributors to this issue of Africa Update.

Prof. Gloria Emeagwali, Chief Editor, Africa Update

Reclaiming Epistemological Sovereignty: Unpacking the African Roots of Global Knowledge

Smangele Evidence Gumede University of KwaZulu- Natal
smangeleevidence95@gmail.com

Introduction

For centuries, the intellectual heritage of Africa has been systematically erased, marginalized, and appropriated by Western epistemological frameworks. The rich knowledge traditions and innovations born from African soils have been hijacked, repackaged, and claimed as the proprietary domain of Western civilization. This epistemic injustice has perpetuated a narrative of African intellectual inferiority, suppressing the continent's contributions to global knowledge production. This work seeks to dismantle this paradigm by reclaiming Africa's epistemological sovereignty. Through a critical examination of historical and contemporary knowledge systems, we will excavate the global roots of African knowledge, highlighting the agency and ingenuity of African scholars, innovators, and communities. By centering African perspectives and experiences, we aim to rebalance the global knowledge landscape, recognizing the endogenous knowledge generated on the continent and its profound impact on human progress (Wa Thiong'o 2020).

The rich cultural heritage and innovative contributions of Africa have often been overlooked or appropriated by Western societies. Ancient African civilizations, such as Egypt and Nubia, made significant advancements in mathematics, architecture, and medicine, yet these achievements are frequently attributed to Western cultures. The false narrative of Africa being a continent devoid of knowledge and innovation has been perpetuated for centuries, erasing the contributions of African scholars, inventors, and innovators 

A prime example is the ancient University of Sankore in Timbuktu, Mali, which was a renowned center of Islamic scholarship and intellectual inquiry in the 13th century. This esteemed institution of learning was instrumental in preserving and advancing knowledge in fields such as astronomy, mathematics, and philosophy. However, the contributions of African scholars from Sankore and other ancient institutions are often marginalized or credited to Western thinkers. Furthermore, traditional African practices and knowledge systems, such as indigenous medicine and agricultural techniques, have been patented and commercialized by Western corporations without proper recognition or compensation. The iconic Dogon people's intricate understanding of astronomy, which predates Western discoveries, is another instance of African innovation being co-opted and repackaged as Western knowledge. The appropriation of African knowledge and innovation is not limited to historical instances. Contemporary African innovators and entrepreneurs continue to face challenges in asserting ownership and receiving recognition for their work. The lack of intellectual property protection and inadequate funding hinder the development and global dissemination of African-driven innovations (Zeleza 2019).

To reclaim and celebrate Africa's intellectual and innovative heritage, it is essential to promote African-centered knowledge systems, support indigenous innovation, and challenge the dominant Western narrative. By acknowledging and valuing African contributions, we can foster a more inclusive and equitable global knowledge economy.

The time has come to shatter the myth of Western epistemological supremacy. For too long, the world has been deceived into believing that knowledge and innovation emanate exclusively from the Global North. This fallacy has been perpetuated through the systematic erasure, and appropriation of Africa's intellectual heritage. From ancient Egyptian mathematics to modern-day medical breakthroughs, African knowledge has been expropriated, repackaged, and sold back to the world as Western innovation (Eglash 2016). The consequences of this epistemic violence are far-reaching, with Africa's contributions to global knowledge production reduced to footnotes in the annals of history. This work seeks to upend this narrative, reclaiming Africa's rightful place as a cradle of knowledge and innovation. By excavating the hidden trajectories of African knowledge and highlighting the continent's ongoing contributions to global intellectual discourse (Ndlovu-Gatsheni 2017). This study challenges the dominant Western epistemology and reclaims Africa's epistemological sovereignty. As Hooks (2018) argues, "knowledge is power," and it is time for Africa to reclaim its intellectual power.

Background

The era of epistemological silence is over. Africa's knowledge revolution is shattering the Western-centric narrative that has monopolized human understanding for centuries, perpetuating a profound injustice that marginalizes Africa's intellectual contributions. The question -Who Actually Owns Knowledge: Western or African? sparks a paradigm-shifting reckoning, exposing the power dynamics that have obscured Africa's sophisticated knowledge systems.

Centuries of colonialism, slavery, and systemic racism have erected an epistemological fortress, bolstering Western dominance and reducing Africa's intellectual legacy to footnotes in the grand narrative of human progress. However, recent discoveries in archaeology, linguistics, genetics, and cultural studies are rewriting history, unveiling Africa's ancient civilizations as beacons of knowledge. From Egypt's pyramids to Nubia's scholars, from Timbuktu's manuscripts to Axum's obelisks, Africa's intellectual legacy has indelibly shaped human understanding.

Africa's indigenous knowledge systems encompass advanced mathematics, astronomy, medicine, philosophy, metallurgy, and architecture. The Nok civilization's geometric art, Egyptian fractions, and Ethiopian numerals demonstrate mathematical sophistication. The Dogon's knowledge of Sirius B and ancient Egyptian calendars showcase astronomical expertise. Traditional Yoruba and Igbo herbalism, alongside ancient Egyptian medical papyri, highlight Africa's contributions to medicine. Ancient Egyptian Ma'at and Ubuntu's communitarian ethics exemplify philosophical depth. Nubian steel and East African ironworking demonstrate metallurgical prowess, while Great Zimbabwe and Djenné-Djenno's mud-brick cities showcase architectural ingenuity (Smith, 2029).

Western epistemological hegemony has obscured Africa's contributions, appropriating knowledge without acknowledgment. Ancient Greek philosophers drew from Egyptian and Nubian scholars. while Arab and European mathematicians benefited from African geometry. Western medical science has roots in traditional African herbalism, and colonizers exploited African metallurgy and architectural innovations. The time has come to challenge Western epistemological dominance, reclaim Africa's knowledge heritage, and redefine the contours of knowledge ownership.

As Africa reasserts its epistemological sovereignty, the global knowledge landscape is being reconfigured. This revolution in thought demands recognition of Africa's integral contributions to human knowledge, dismantling the epistemological stronghold that has silenced Africa's voice. The implications are profound, challenging Western epistemological hegemony, reversing the erasure of African intellectual histories, redefining knowledge production and ownership, fostering epistemological diversity and global intellectual justice, and empowering future generations to reclaim their intellectual heritage. The tide of history is turning, and Africa's epistemological sovereignty is being reclaimed, recognizing Africa's knowledge legacy as a cornerstone of human understanding. 

Research Questions

RQ1. How has Western-centric knowledge production historically marginalized African knowledge systems, and what are the implications for African epistemological sovereignty?

RQ2. What role do Western funding agencies play in perpetuating intellectual dependency and undermining African autonomy in knowledge production?

RQ3. How can Afrocentric pedagogy and curriculum design empower African learners and promote cultural identity and intellectual sovereignty?

RQ4. What alternative funding models and collaborative partnerships can support African-led research and knowledge production, and how can they be sustained?

RQ5. How can African universities and research institutions challenge Western dominance and assert African knowledge systems in the global knowledge economy?

Research Objectives:

Primary Objective

To reclaim epistemological sovereignty in Africa by challenging Western dominance and asserting African knowledge systems.

Specific Objectives

RQ1. To critically examine the historical and contemporary dynamics of Western-centric knowledge production and its impact on African knowledge systems.

RQ2. To investigate the role of Western funding agencies in shaping African research agendas and undermining African autonomy.

RO3. To develop and promote Afrocentric pedagogy and curriculum design in African universities. 

RO4. To identify and establish alternative funding models and collaborative partnerships supporting African-led research and knowledge production.

RO5. To develop strategies for African universities and research institutions to assert African knowledge systems in the global knowledge economy.

Literature Review

The quest to reclaim epistemological sovereignty necessitates an interrogation of dominant Western epistemology and its erasure of African knowledge systems. Epistemologically, Western-centric knowledge production has been challenged by scholars such as Mudimbe (1988), who argues that African knowledge has been marginalized through colonialism and Eurocentrism. Wa Thiong'o (1986) posits that linguistic imperialism has silenced African voices, while Asante (1990) advocates for Afrocentricity as a counter-hegemonic epistemology.

Ontologically, African scholars have questioned the universal applicability of Western concepts, instead emphasizing the importance of indigenous knowledge systems (IKS). Semali and Kincheloe (1999) contend that IKS offer alternative ontologies, challenging Western notions of objectivity and truth. Dei (2000) highlights the significance of African spirituality and cosmology in shaping knowledge production. African ontology emphasizes communal and holistic understandings of reality, contrasting with Western individualism and fragmentation.

Historical records reveal that various knowledge systems originated in Africa, only to be misrepresented as Western innovations. Examples include advanced mathematics, medicine, astronomy, metallurgy, and architecture. Western scholars have often appropriated African knowledge without acknowledgment, as seen in ancient Greek philosophers' reliance on Egyptian and Nubian scholars (Bernal, 1987) and Arab and European mathematicians' use of African numerals and geometry (Katz, 2013). The imposition of Western epistemology has undermined African education systems, perpetuating inferiority complexes among African learners. African curricula often prioritize Western knowledge, marginalizing indigenous knowledge and cultural heritage (Wa Thiong'o, 1986). This has resulted in cultural disorientation, identity crisis, and intellectual dependency (Asante, 1990). Recent studies have reinforced the need for epistemological decolonization. Grosfoguel's (2019) concept of "decolonial epistemology" highlights the importance of delinking from Western epistemology. Mbembe's (2019) notion of "epistemological pluralism" advocates for recognizing multiple knowledge systems. Ndlovu-Gatsheni (2018) critiques Western epistemology's "epistemological injustice" against African knowledge.

To address these challenges, scholars advocate for decolonization of African education systems (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2018). This involves integrating indigenous knowledge systems into curricula (Mawere & Mubaya, 2018) and promoting Afrocentric epistemology and pedagogy (Asante, 1990). Empowering African scholars and knowledge producers is crucial in reclaiming epistemological sovereignty (Grosfoguel, 2019). Theoretical frameworks such as Critical Pedagogy, Postcolonial Theory, Critical Theory, and Social Constructivism offer valuable insights into the dynamics surrounding African knowledge and innovation appropriated by Western cultures. Critical Pedagogy, as proposed by Kincheloe (1999), emphasizes the role of power relations in shaping knowledge and education. It reveals how Western epistemologies have been imposed upon African societies, marginalizing indigenous knowledge systems, and highlights the need for decolonization of education, recognizing African perspectives and experiences. 

Postcolonial Theory, built upon Said's work (1978), examines the legacy of colonialism on knowledge production and cultural representation. This framework exposes how Western colonial powers extracted and appropriated African knowledge, presenting it as their own, and challenges Orientalism, which essentializes and distorts African cultures, reinforcing Western superiority. It advocates for reclaiming and revaluing African knowledge systems, histories, and cultural expressions. A notable example is the attribution of ancient Egyptian knowledge and innovations, such as mathematics and architecture, to Greek or European influences, downplaying African agency.

Critical Theory, as developed by Habermas (1984), critiques power structures and knowledge production. It analyzes how Western-dominated knowledge systems perpetuate epistemic injustice, dismissing African perspectives, and highlights the role of communicative action and discourse in shaping knowledge. This framework emphasizes the need for inclusive, participatory approaches and advocates for democratizing knowledge production, recognizing African voices and experiences. The initial response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic in Africa, which neglected traditional African healing practices and knowledge in favor of Western medical frameworks, illustrates this point (NdlovuGatsheni 2018). 

Social Constructivism, posited by Berger and Luckmann (1966), views knowledge as constructed through social interactions and agreements. This framework shows how Western knowledge systems have been constructed as universal and objective, while African knowledge is relegated to "traditional" status. It highlights the importance of understanding knowledge as context-dependent and culturally situated, encouraging recognition of African knowledge as valid and legitimate. The dismissal of African traditional medicine as "unscientific" despite its efficacy and centuries-long history, while Western pharmaceuticals are privileged, exemplifies this.

The African philosophical concept of "Ubuntu" (humanity towards others) is often reduced to a simplistic Western interpretation, neglecting its complex cultural context.

Common themes across these frameworks include decolonization, epistemic justice, power dynamics, and contextual understanding. Decolonization involves challenging Western dominance and reclaiming African knowledge and cultural heritage. Epistemic justice recognizes and values African perspectives and experiences. Power dynamics analyze how knowledge production and dissemination are shaped by power relations. Contextual understanding appreciates knowledge as culturally situated and context dependent. By applying these theoretical frameworks, we can better understand the complex dynamics surrounding African knowledge and innovation and work towards a more inclusive and equitable recognition of African contributions.

Summary of Aspects Originated from African Continent

Unfortunately, there is a long history of cultural appropriation, intellectual exploitation, and colonization that has led to the erasure of African contributions to various fields. Here are some key innovations and knowledge areas that were developed by African people but often attributed to Western cultures.

Table 1. Source: Extracted from the 100^th issue: 100 Innovations, Invention and icons from Africa-2021/04/01 

It is essential to acknowledge and respect the intellectual and cultural heritage of African people, rather than perpetuating the notion that Western cultures are solely responsible for these innovations.

Research Methodology

This qualitative study engages with African scholars, knowledge producers, and communities through in-depth interviews, focus groups and participatory action research. The sample comprises 50 African scholars and knowledge producers, selected through purposive sampling. The population includes African academics, researchers and community leaders. The reclaiming of epistemological sovereignty necessitates a radical shift in the way African knowledge systems are perceived and valued. This study challenges the dominant Western epistemology that erases African knowledge systems, perpetuating intellectual dependency and cultural disorientation. Through a qualitative research approach, this study engages with African scholars, knowledge producers, and communities, ensuring that the voices and experiences of the marginalized are centered (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2018). By centering African voices and experiences, this study contributes to the ongoing conversation on epistemological decolonization and the reclamation of African knowledge systems.This qualitative study explores the reclaiming of epistemological sovereignty in Africa, challenging dominant Western epistemology and promoting African knowledge systems. Through a critical analysis of literature and empirical research, this study identifies four themes: decolonizing epistemology, reclaiming indigenous knowledge, transforming education and empowering knowledge producers.

Themes

Decolonizing epistemology, reclaiming indigenous knowledge, transforming education, and empowering knowledge producers are interconnected efforts aimed at challenging and dismantling the dominant Western paradigm in knowledge production and dissemination. At the heart of this movement is the recognition that Western knowledge systems have historically marginalized or erased non-Western knowledge systems. Decolonizing epistemology involves questioning and challenging this dominant Western worldview. This requires recognizing the historical power dynamics that have privileged Western knowledge over others, critiquing the notion of objective, universal truth, and acknowledging the cultural and social construction of knowledge. Additionally, it involves valuing diverse forms of knowledge, including indigenous, traditional, and community based knowledge.

Reclaiming indigenous knowledge is a critical aspect of this process. This involves revitalizing and preserving indigenous languages, cultures, and knowledge systems, recognizing indigenous peoples as knowledge holders and experts in their own right, and integrating indigenous knowledge into education, research, and policy-making (Ngugi, 1986). 

Transforming education is also essential. This involves decolonizing curricula to include diverse perspectives and knowledge systems, promoting culturally responsive and inclusive pedagogies, and empowering students to critically evaluate dominant narratives and knowledge structures ( Mawere &Mabuya, 2018). Empowering knowledge producers is another key aspect of this movement. This involves centering marginalized voices and perspectives in knowledge production, recognizing and valuing diverse forms of knowledge production, such as oral traditions and community-based research, and creating inclusive and equitable knowledge-sharing platforms.

Presentation of Findings and Discussion

The ongoing debate surrounding the ownership of knowledge, specifically Western versus African, underscores the imperative to reclaim epistemological sovereignty in Africa. As highlighted in the literature review, Western-centric knowledge production has historically marginalized African knowledge systems, perpetuating intellectual dependency and cultural disorientation (Mudimbe, 1988; Wa Thiong'o, 1986). This qualitative study challenges this dominance, centering African voices and experiences. The reclaiming of epistemological sovereignty necessitates a radical shift in the way African knowledge systems are perceived and valued. This study challenges the dominant Western epistemology that erases African knowledge systems, perpetuating intellectual dependency and cultural disorientation. Through a qualitative research approach, this study engages with African scholars, knowledge producers, and communities, ensuring that the voices and experiences of the marginalized are centered.

A critical aspect of this exploitation is the strategic division of African nations and communities by Western funding agencies, often through political organizations and nonprofit organizations (NPOs). Participants highlighted how these external forces have created and exacerbated divisions among African nations, facilitating the extraction of African knowledge without compensation or recognition. Western funding agencies have historically supported NPOs and political organizations that promote Western interests, often at the expense of African autonomy. These organizations frequently prioritize Western knowledge systems, undermining African indigenous knowledge and cultural heritage. This has resulted in a loss of epistemological sovereignty, as African nations become increasingly reliant on Western knowledge and expertise. The consequences of this exploitation are far-reaching, damaging African education systems and perpetuating intellectual dependency. Afrocentric pedagogy and curriculum design are essential for empowering African learners, promoting cultural identity and intellectual sovereignty. African universities must move beyond producing knowledge solely for Western acceptance and validation. Instead, they should prioritize knowledge production that fosters equity, justice, and transformative change in Africa. This requires a paradigm shift from seeking inclusion in Western-dominated knowledge systems to asserting ownership and agency over African knowledge and innovation.

Findings from this study reveal four critical themes: decolonizing epistemology, reclaiming indigenous knowledge, transforming education, and empowering knowledge producers. Decolonizing epistemology involves challenging Western dominance and promoting Afrocentric perspectives. Reclaiming indigenous knowledge is critical for promoting cultural sustainability and intellectual sovereignty.Transforming education is essential for promoting African knowledge systems. Afrocentric pedagogy and curriculum design empower African learners, promoting cultural identity and intellectual sovereignty. Empowering African knowledge producers is critical for reclaiming epistemological sovereignty.

African disunity emerged as a significant factor contributing to the exploitation of African knowledge and innovation. Participants proposed unity and collaboration as a solution, emphasizing the importance of Pan-African knowledge sharing networks, collaborative research initiatives, African-led knowledge production and dissemination, and decolonized education systems (Smith, 2018).

This study was guided by five research questions: (1) What are the historical and contemporary dynamics of knowledge production and exploitation in Africa? (2) How do African scholars and knowledge producers perceive the dominance of Western epistemology? (3) What strategies can be employed to reclaim and promote African knowledge systems? (4) How can African disunity be addressed to prevent further knowledge exploitation? (5) What role can Afrocentric pedagogy and curriculum design play in transforming education? Participant interviews explored these questions, yielding rich insights into the experiences and perspectives of African scholars and knowledge producers. The study employed a qualitative approach, engaging with 50 African scholars and knowledge producers selected through purposive sampling.

Ultimately, this study's findings feature the imperative for African universities to prioritize knowledge production that fosters equity, justice, and transformative change in Africa. By asserting ownership and agency over African knowledge and innovation, African scholars and knowledge producers can reclaim epistemological sovereignty and challenge the dominance of Western epistemology. Resistance to Western funding agencies' divisive tactics is critical for decolonizing education systems and promoting Afrocentric pedagogy (Mignolo, 2011). 

To achieve these goals, several strategies are recommended. These include collaborative research and knowledge co-creation, community-based and participatory approaches, critical pedagogy and transformative education, language revitalization and cultural preservation, and policy reforms and institutional changes.

Conclusion

Reclaiming epistemological sovereignty in Africa demands a revolutionary shift in knowledge production, dissemination, and valuation. Findings underscore the imperative for African universities to prioritize knowledge production fostering equity, justice, and transformative change. However, this endeavor is hindered by various challenges, including the marginalization of African knowledge systems. It necessitates a paradigm shift away from Western-centric knowledge dominance. This radical transformation involves developing and promoting Afrocentric pedagogy and curriculum design grounded in African perspectives, experiences, and values. Concurrently, funding agencies must prioritize African-led research initiatives, adopting flexible and equitable funding models that ensure local ownership and control. Redefined collaborative partnerships should foster co-creation, mutual respect, and capacity building. By adopting this approach, Africa can reclaim agency over knowledge generated about itself, challenging Western epistemology's historical hegemony. This revolutionary shift will decolonize knowledge, cultivate innovative solutions tailored to Africa's unique challenges, and enable Africans to redefine their narratives, inform policy decisions, and drive transformative development that reflects their aspirations, values, and cultural identities, ultimately reclaiming their epistemological sovereignty.

One of the significant obstacles is the ranking of universities, which perpetuates a Western-centric hierarchy. This ranking system discourages collaboration and learning among African institutions, instead fostering competition and xenophobia. African countries are pitted against each other, vying for limited resources and recognition. This self-preservation mentality undermines the realization of African continental strength and collective progress. Furthermore, the scarcity of resources exacerbates the problem. African countries face significant financial constraints, forcing them to rely on Western funding agencies. These agencies often prioritize Western-led research, perpetuating intellectual dependency and undermining African autonomy. The lack of resources also hampers the development of African-led research initiatives, stifling innovation and knowledge production.

Xenophobia and Afrophobia within African nations further compound the issue. These attitudes hinder collaboration and knowledge sharing among African scholars, reinforcing Western dominance. The internalization of Western epistemology has led to the devaluation of African knowledge systems, resulting in a loss of epistemological sovereignty. Moreover, the emphasis on Western-style education has led to the marginalization of indigenous knowledge and cultural heritage. Afrocentric pedagogy and curriculum design are essential for empowering learners with pride in their intellectual traditions. However, these approaches are often dismissed as "traditional" or "unscientific," perpetuating the notion that Western knowledge is superior.

Reclaiming epistemological sovereignty requires collective action, resilience, and commitment to African intellectual liberation. African universities must prioritize Afrocentric pedagogy, promote African-led research, and develop alternative funding models. Collaborative partnerships and policies supporting African knowledge production and innovation are crucial.

Ultimately, recognizing and addressing these challenges is essential for reclaiming Africa's rightful place as a global leader in knowledge production and innovation (Grosfoguel, 2016). By valuing and recognizing African knowledge systems, Africa can break free from intellectual dependency and assert its epistemological sovereignty. 

Areas of Further Research

1. Documenting and preserving African knowledge and innovation through oral histories, archives, and cultural institutions.
2. Analyzing the power dynamics and mechanisms of knowledge appropriation and erasure.
3. Promoting African-led research initiatives and collaborations.
4. Developing decolonial methodologies for knowledge production and dissemination.
5. Highlighting the contributions of African scientists, engineers, and innovators in various fields.

By pursuing these research directions, the African continent can begin to redress the historical injustices surrounding African knowledge and innovation and foster a more inclusive and equitable global knowledge landscape with further interrogation of indigenous knowledge.

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Kemet (Kmt) and Art
Amon Saba Saakana

Karnak House, London UK

Historical Continuity from Predynastic Nubia

The foundational principles for the intellectual development of Kemet (Kmt) were incubated, developed and extended to the north from Nubia. The centre of political activity was Nekhen (Hierakonpolis) (Kemp 1991, 44) and the royal apparatus, including royal art, architecture, and religion, diffused from the south. All the scientific materiality of culture which would apotheosis grander forms in later times clearly received their prototypes in the early south.

Kemp shows that the preponderance of animal figures utilised in commemorative plaques expressed a world in which chaos was to be defeated, and order, harmony and balance to be established in its place (Kemp 1991, 47) - interestingly, though, Kemp does not allude to Maat, whose qualities represent the social attributes of the Goddess in her symbolisation of moral governance. Political harmony was expressed in the pairing of animals . The theme generally conveyed powerfully the intention on the part of the artist to depict an ultimate attainable harmonious framework in a turbulent world. An alternative depiction of order was through the peaceful processions of animals, arranged in orderly horizontal rows one above another" (Kemp ibid.). Again, this utilisation of animals in their natural habitat demonstrated a trained sensibility and keen observation of animals who collectively coordinated their efforts in warding off attacks from other animals, staking out territoriality, defensive or offensive action, and protecting their young and female companions, among other activities.

There is also the cosmological explanation at the Sep Tepy, the occasion in which the Creator God Atum, spat out Shu and Tefnut, Geb and Nut, all divine pairs symbolising the natural compositional structure of the unity of the universe: wind and moisture, earth and sky, sun and moon, balancing forces in relation to life on earth, separated from but connected to the magnificent unity of Wai (One). These motifs would continue unbroken to the end of indigenous Kmt rule.

A remarkable discovery by a Belgian archaeological group led by Dirk Huyge (Huyge et al 2007) revealed not only the deep antiquity of the finds, but the highly skilled execution of the art. Bovids dominate in size, imposing themselves on the art, ranging from 0.8 m to 1.8 m. The incised method was applied in the creation of these images, which were found at a Nubian sandstone hill, Abu Tunqura Bahari, within the El- Hosh area, 40 km from Edfu. They and had been previously discovered in 1962 by the Canadian Prehistoric Expedition. They dated to 7000 BP or 5000 BCE, which is a thousand years older than the petroglyphs detailed by Toby Wilkinson in his Genesis of the Pharaohs. This certainly gives new meanings in relation to the art field in the south-eastern desert. These petroglyphs are also replicated at Qurta in the southern zone, and dated to an astonishing 15,000 BP (13,000 BCE) . There are one hundred and eleven representations in dynastic Kmt, and the nascent Kmtu state. The bovids were realistically represented and did not have the stylisation that appeared in 4000 BCE.

 An important development in the standardising of aesthetic production of Kmt's art environment is that of the grid system which is attested in a rudimentary form from the fifth dynasty in the Old Kingdom (Robbins 1994: 64. ) This does not mean, however, that there is no possibility of an antecedent tradition in perishable material such as wood, but merely records the oldest finds so far discovered by archaeology and art history. This system permitted the artist to portray his subject with precision and exactitude in a highly stylised formula: wide shoulders, tapering torso, long legs, usually executed in profile. This grid system came to play a major role in the 20th century Italian art movement, Futurism, which incorporated a grid structure on the canvas in order to create greater precision.

The tradition of portraiture and of formalism was initiated as early as the Old Kingdom (2780 BCE) in which royalty adopted specific poses to express authority, respect, distance and status. This was later reflected in Greek and Roman art, in all instances reflecting everlastingness, and the unchanging position of the elite. The artist functioned primarily as a court artist, thus he was at the command of his employer. However, many artists, when not employed or when at rest, portrayed people as they saw them, sometimes sardonically, sometimes jocularly, which were recorded on ostraca, bits of stone.Today, photography also reflects this tradition: a factory worker can be transformed into a statused person through dress and pose- frequently accomplished through the modern device of a make over.

The royal pose expressed in an ancient portrayal of a harpist/singer, is reflected in the Scottish painter, James Bruce’ s attempt to transpose the original Kemetan figure to a European in the 18th century. The use of animals as musicians, as intelligent beings, found reflection in later European illustrated fiction such as Alice in Wonderland. The juxtaposition of part human being with a symbolic (read abstract) head, for example, found expression in 20th century dadaism/surrealism which battled against a formal, static tradition, as opposed to that in Kmt where it was the norm. The figure of maat with wings (on which later Christian saints were modelled), the ankh with human legs and arms, the head of a human emerging from a lotus, a king feeding from the breasts of a tree of life (the persea, symbolic of the succulence of the Goddess), a was sign forming the head of Seti I, the immenet sign forming the head of a goddess- all these expressions through art made up a wide vocabulary of signs which only the educated could read and understand.

These traditions are maintained today in many African societies and are still meticulously guarded from the uninitiated because of the tremendous restraints placed upon moral character. The late Mweng (1963), emphasised that African art is an alphabet and can only be interpreted once the letters are understood. Parkinson also echoed this notion " (Mweng 1963). It is clearly impossible “to read an ancient text such as the Rosetta Stone without the eyes, spirit and the responses of the ancients, let alone a text produced two thousand years earlier in a culture that was even more different from our own" (Parkinson 1999, 195).

One of the goals of royalty and the educated elite was to create a symbolic reflection of the permanence of the cosmos: sun, moon, stars, rain, thunder, lightning, night, day which mirrored itself in royal art. The postures taken by royalty were to reflect permanence and the unchanging- as is the cosmos, so is the king. This, however, continuously received reinterpretation at every dynasty. Thus although the art was never static, its cosmological concepts were certainly constant. In thus laying the foundations for an art tradition which was reinterpreted and extended at different periods in Kmt’s long history, the pattern was set for innovation and development and a prototype for the diffusion of art in the Indo-European world (Wolf 1989, 597).

References

Bright, Michael. 1990. Alligators and Crocodiles. London/New York: Franklin Watts.

Clark, R. T. Rundle. 1978. Myth and Symbol in Ancient Egypt. London: Thames and Hudson.

Dike, P. Chike. 1987. "Art, Symbol and Authority among the Aro of South-East Nigeria." Nigeria Magazine, Lagos.

Enekwe, Onuora Ossie. 1987. Igbo Masks: The Oneness of Ritual Theatre. Lagos: Nigeria Magazine Publications.

Fagg, William. 1970. Divine Kingship in Africa. London: British Museum Publications.

Huyge, Dick, et al. 2007. "Lascaux along the Nile: Late Pleistocene rock art in Egypt." Antiquity 81, no. 313 (September).

James, T. G. H. 1985. Egyptian Painting. London: BMP.

Kemp, Barry J. 1993. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization. London/New York: Routledge.

Lamy, Lucie. 1981. Egyptian Mysteries: New Light on Ancient Knowledge. London: Thames & Hudson.

Maspero, Gaston. 1901. The Dawn of Civilization. London: Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge.

Mweng, E. 1963. "African Art Yesterday and Africa Today." Presence Africaine, no. 46. Paris.

Niangoran-Bouah, G. 1985. The Akan World of Gold Weights. Abidjan: Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines/M.L.B.

Parkinson, Richard. 1999. Cracking Codes: The Rosetta Stone and Decipherment. London: British Museum Press.

Petty, Kate. 1985. Crocodiles and Alligators. London/New York: Franklin Watts.

Read, F. W. 1905. Egyptian Religion and Ethics. London: The African Publication Society.

Robbins, Gay. 1994. Proportion and Style in Ancient Egyptian Art. London: Thames & Hudson.

Trevisick, Charles. 1980. Hippos. East Sussex: Wayland Publishers.

Wilkinson, Richard H. 1992. Reading Egyptian Art. London: Thames & Hudson.

Wolf. 1989. The Origins of Western Art. New York: Universe Books.

The World Book Encyclopedia. 1992. London/Chicago: World Book Inc.

Review of Ehret, Christopher. Ancient Africa: A Global History to 300CE New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2023

Gloria Emeagwali
CCSU
emeagwali@ccsu.edu 

An exciting aspect of Ehret’s Ancient Africa is its research on ancient Egypt’s African endogeneity and identity, through the use of linguistic, archeological and botanical data. In the fifth chapter of Ancient Africa, Ehret establishes the role of communities from East Africa and Nubia in the peopling of Egypt. He points out that the diffusion of grain -harvesting techniques, from Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, provided the foundation for aspects of ancient Egyptian agronomy and agriculture, and that linguistic, archaeological and archaeo -botanical resources provide ample evidence of the regional interconnections. The distinguished scholar provides examples of loan words and concepts across the regions, particularly as they refer to grain harvesting. Laga Oda at modern day Dire Dawa is cited as the earliest evidence of wild grass domestication, with pearl millet and other grains at the forefront, as early as 16,000 BCE. Ehret posits that the cosmological center would be in areas such as the Nubian region of Nabta Playa where links to Sirius, and the Orion Belt would be discerned, and that adjacent regions such as Qustul were equally significant, insofar as they reflected other aspects of cosmology and political ideology- in artifacts such as the famous Qustul incense burner. Representation of three ships in procession, and iconic regalia such as the White Crown on the burner, would become significant aspects of the paraphernalia of power and hegemony in later periods of Egyptian history, the author points out. The proposition here is that the Qustul Kingdom of Nubia set the foundational stage for the unified Egyptian state in imagery, and that to get to the source of these ideas, practices and philosophical concepts, one must look south of Egypt.

Throughout the discourse, we are given detailed examples of vocabulary and linguistic patterns that reveal the southern areas of origin of certain utensils, ceramic styles and patterns. Burial practices such as the ritual accompaniment of the deceased ruler would show up elsewhere in the more southerly regions of the continent. An example is given of several rulers, including Old Kingdom rulers such as Djoser, buried along with 318 persons. The point made by Ehret is that Egypt did not emerge in 3000 BCE fully formed and complete but would be linked culturally to other Indigenous African regions in addition to its own.

Chronologically speaking , distinctions are made between the long date of about 16,000 BCE, the intermediate era starting around 6000 BCE, and the period of Egyptian unification around 3000 BCE. In terms of chapter organization, and chronology, however, it would seem that the professor placed the cart before the horse, leaving the foundation era for the concluding chapter, for example. In that concluding chapter, he discusses agricultural exchange between 6000 BCE and 3000 BCE and earlier. The chapter is successful , however, if viewed as an overview over time and space and a recap of some of the previous segments.

 Ehret’s choice of 68,000 BCE as the definitive start of homo sapiens in the continent may be debated, given the 100,000-year-old pigment- processing workshop discovered by Henshilwood and others at Blombos, South Africa- a discovery that points to the intellectual development and creative thinking associated with homo sapiens ( Henshilwood 2011). Moreover, the current view of the emergence of homo sapiens in Africa, points to between 300,000 and 500,000 years ago.

Ceramics, Metallurgy and Engineering

The book includes chapters that focus on ceramics, metallurgy, engineering, and agriculture and is relevant to Studies on African Indigenous Knowledges, in several ways. Professor Ehret points out that in the sphere of ceramics, Mali was first in the continent, pre-dating Nubia and environs with dates as early as 9500 BCE, at least four millennia before pottery emerged in the Middle East and Europe and decades before Nubia. The contributions of African women to this invention are also highlighted – an issue of considerable significance, given the links of pyro- technology to the evolution of metallurgy in the region. Furnaces and accompanying tools, and implements such as tuyeres and anvils, have been found along with charcoal slag and bits of iron, he points out.

Ehret points out that the African iron belt would include the terrain of Nok, Central Nigeria, and extended to the Cameroonian and Central African locations of Gbatoro and Oboui as well as regions such as Rwanda, at around 2000 BCE and earlier - the dates being the earliest in the world for that technology. The professor does not mention Darling’s iron metallurgical findings in northern Nigeria, that date to 2300 BCE , but he posits that the evidence he unearthed, suggests that Africans were the first in the world to develop iron technology. In other words, among the truly endogenous and Indigenous technologies of Africa and its early knowledge systems would be metallurgy. Earlier diffusionist claims that point to regions outside of Africa as the origin of African iron technology, are no longer viable, argues the distinguished professor. Ancient African Indigenous technology in metallurgy also involves the production of steel. In this sphere, Africa was also first in the world, predating China by about a millennium, and Europe by almost two thousand years, he argues.

Ehret points out that spindle whorls for spinning cotton thread, found in the region of Khartoum, date to around 6000 BCE pointing to African precocity in the field of cotton textile production, from the domesticated cotton species, Gossypium herbaceum and Gossypium arboretum. The whorls were located within Nubian terrain, at around the sixth cataract. Ehret also establishes that raffia cloth originated in the African continent in the Nigerian- Cameroonian region, habitat of the raffia palm (Raphia) and that the technique of making wearable garments from the palm dates back to about five thousand years. He notes that the invention of appropriate looms, in this case broad looms, characterized this type of cloth, still made proficiently by the Kuba people and others of central Africa, and that such activity involved the application of a range of skills, including observational, experimental, and artistic ones, which would facilitate the transformation of a botanical product into sophisticated durable and attractive fabric.

Although the terminology “ Indigenous Knowledge Systems” or “ Indigenous Knowledges” is not used in this illuminating text, methodologically speaking, and in terms of content, this work is a monumental testimony to the endogenous, accumulated skills, expertise, and knowledges of Ancient Africa in its non-colonized, and non -colonial contexts. Scholars of African Indigenous Knowledge Systems (AIKS), associate specific variables such as authenticity, local initiative, participation that goes beyond elitism and exclusivity, self -sustained growth, inventiveness, and innovation, with the epistemological system and accompanying activities (Emeagwali 2016, 2020, 2025). 

On the whole, this text is a virtual treasure chest for scholars in search of in-depth information about African antiquity as it relates to ancient Egypt, and Indigenous and endogenous accomplishments within Africa, not only in ancient northeast Africa, but in the continent as a whole.

References

Emeagwali, Gloria, and Edward Shizha, eds. 2016. African Indigenous Knowledge Systems and the Sciences. Rotterdam: Sense.

Emeagwali, Gloria. 2020. "African Indigenous Knowledge Systems and the Legacy of Africa." In Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Development in Africa, edited by Samuel Ojo Oloruntoba, Adeshina Afolayan, and Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso, 45–62. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.

———. 2025. "Ancient African Inventions and Innovations with Reference to Southern Africa." In Akwaba Africa: African Renaissance in the 21st Century, edited by N’Dri Thérèse Assie-Lumumba, 120–38. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press.

Henshilwood, Christopher, Francesco d’Errico, Karen L. van Niekerk, Yvan Coquinot, Zenobia Jacobs, Stein-Erik Lauritzen, Michel Menu, and Renata García-Moreno. 2011. "A 100,000-Year-Old Ochre-Processing Workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa." Science 334 (6053): 219–22.