Applied sport psychology by Dr. Costas Karageorghis
Senior Lecturer in Sport Psychology, Brunel University, West London
Background on Stress
We all know athletes who thrive in stressful situations and others who appear
to be completely debilitated by stress. For example, the British 400 metre
runner Solomon Wariso often performed brilliantly in domestic competitions but
couldn’t emulate such form in major championships. Why should this be the case?
Many athletes do not fully understand the stress phenomenon: does the term
‘stress’ relate to how we react to situations or is stress inherent in some
situations regardless of personality influences? One universally accepted
definition of stress was published by a man dubbed ‘the father of stress’, Dr.
Hans Seyle. Seyle views stress as a non-specific response of the body to any
demand made upon it. This, in part, explains how some people thrive on stress
and others are debilitated by it. The effects of stress are governed by how we
interpret common symptoms such as an elevated pulse, muscular tension and
narrowed attention. For example, while an experienced distance runner such as
Haile Gebreselassie is turned on, inspired and exhilarated by competing in a
packed stadium, a novice runner might be reluctant even to step out of the
changing rooms!
Stress will not impair your daily functioning if the physical and
psychological responses to it can be used positively to fuel your passion for
success. It only becomes harmful whenever you begin to feel that you cannot cope
with it. Therefore, getting to know your optimal stress level is a key to
managing stress and being able to expose yourself to the right amount.
Excessively high levels of stress can result in illness and, in extreme cases,
even mental instability. Long before illness ensues, excessive stress can be
identified through symptoms such as muscular tension, irritability and the
inability to concentrate. The eight tips that follow are well grounded in recent
psychological theory and will be of interest to those athletes who would like to
develop greater control over their reactions to stress.
1. Meditation
Meditation provides greater physical and emotional control; it is a technique
widely employed by martial artists and practitioners of eastern religions.
Meditation relies upon self-focus which leads to a state of internal immersion.
Hence, rather than focusing on things around you, meditation involves the
practice of focus on internal thought processes. Internal immersion in images
will help you to exert greater control over both concentration and arousal
levels. There are many different types of meditation which include zen, hatha-yoga,
and transcendental meditation. A feature common to all the techniques is that
they place an emphasis on breathing control which ‘quietens the mind’ and
‘diffuses global muscle tension’. A good introduction to meditation would
involve the use of one of the meditation audio cassettes which are now widely
available. Meditation will not necessarily turn you into a guru who is able to
float three feet in the air and walk on hot coals, but will be very beneficial
in relieving any adverse reactions to stress.
2. Mellow Tones
A popular research area of late has been the effect of music on the mind-body
relationship (Karageorghis & Terry, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2001). Our
research at Brunel University has in part supported the claims of musical
folklore that music can have a profound effect on mind-body interaction. One of
the most widely documented uses of music is as a relaxant. Numerous athletes
have tapped into the purported stress-busting effects of music. One of the best
known was the legendary American 400 metre hurdler, Edwin Moses. He enjoyed
mellowing-out to the sounds of soul music before every race and this helped him
to achieve a winning streak which lasted the best part of a decade. I recall
that when asked by a journalist whether he felt threatened by all the young
pretenders who were after his throne, Moses responded, “The other guys are so
far behind that I don’t even know what they look like”!
Relaxing music should be music that you associate with tranquillity. This can
be slow or a little up-tempo depending on what your preferences are. Clearly,
your mood will govern whether you decide to have an easy with Enya or a
strut to the Stones. This is one that you will certainly need to play by
ear!
3. Socializing
Social interaction provides athletes with many opportunities to relieve
stress particularly when mixing with people with whom you feel at ease or are
attracted to. Socialising provides time to sideline or forget about problems.
The converse is also possible: problems can be openly discussed with fellow
athletes who may show empathy. Realising that other athletes have adverse
reactions to stress for the same reasons that you do can help to make your
stress levels more tolerable. Most women understand that a problem shared is a
problem halved; men would also do well to talk about their concerns more
openly.
4. Mental Imagery
Mental imagery can act as a form of escapism. Effective imagery involves
creating bold and vivid images in the mind while employing all the senses in
unison. Your mind has the power to situate you in any place that you associate
with relaxation. Mental images of relaxation which use your senses serve to
spread relaxation to the entire body. Further, imagery is useful in rehearsing
strategies for dealing with stress. For example, a source of stress may be the
fear of being beaten by a close rival. To deal with this, it is advisable to
play through the competition scenario in your mind, in first person, so that you
are seeing events through your own eyes. Visualise focusing exclusively of your
own performance and mastering the skills involved. Ultimately, this will
maximise your probabilities of success. Remember that fear is negative and
desire is positive. Foster a desire to be the best that you possibly can through
mental imagery.
5. Massage
An all-over body massage with essential oils is one of the most enjoyable
ways to relax. It also eases the aches and strains associated with a tough
training regimen. Some massage oils are specially blended to ease muscular
tension and to calm the mind. High street retailers now provide quite an
extensive range of aromatherapy oils in case you want to practise with a fellow
athlete. There are many different forms of massage, which serve a variety of
purposes, and these can range from Shiatsu to Swedish. Ideally,
you should look for a reputable sports massage therapist. An hour’s session will
cost in the region of £15-£30. A good massage will leave you feeling physically
and mentally revitalised. There is also the added bonus of reduced
susceptibility to injury. I would recommend at least an hour-long session of
massage each week to help you to deal with the rigours of your training
programme.
6. Hobbies and Interests
Activities that distract you from the day-to-day toil of your training
routine and give you time out from the rat race are to be highly recommended. A
hobby that is pursued on a daily basis can provide great fulfilment. Hobbies
present an opportunity for mastery experiences as well as recreation and
personal expression. The diversity of hobbies engaged in by famous athletes
never ceases to amaze me. For example, Britain’s most successful shot putter and
former world’s strongest man Geoff Capes, is well known for his ability to breed
prize-winning budgerigars! Another noteworthy example is the infamous French
soccer player Eric Cantona who enjoyed writing abstract poetry during his days
at Manchester United.
7. Progressive Muscular Relaxation
Among the pantheon of intervention strategies for stress reduction,
Progressive Muscular Relaxation or PMR as it is more commonly known, is probably
the most popular. PMR was devised by the physiologist Edmund Jacobson back in
1938 and involves developing an awareness of areas of tension in the
musculature. To practise PMR you need to lie in a comfortable position in a
place where you are unlikely to be disturbed. Breathe deeply from the abdomen
until you feel calm. Start by tensing your arms so that they become taut and
rigid. Hold the tension for about five seconds and then relax; take a deep
breath and notice the difference between the state of tension and the state of
relaxation. Repeat this process then progress through each major muscle group
from your head down to your feet tensing hard then releasing the tension as you
exhale. Notice the relaxation flow through your body as you progress
systematically through each muscle group.
8. Rest and Recuperation
It’s okay to lead a ‘roller coaster’ lifestyle as long as you allow yourself
adequate time for rest and recuperation. People differ greatly in terms of how
much rest they require. Although most doctors recommend at least eight hours
sleep, some night owls can get by with just six hours, while other
Sleeping Beauties require as many as twelve hours. Physically active people
do tend to require more rest than the general population. Indeed, rest is an
integral part of the training process as it is during sleep that many of the
regenerative processes such as muscle building take place. Of course, rest does
not only include sleep, but any activity which provides a pleasurable refrain
from your normal pattern of physically taxing activity. Remember the adage that
a change is often as good as a rest.
Summary
The number of methods to relieve the debilitative effects of stress is only
as limited as your imagination. I suggest that you try out several methods to
discover which works best for you. Stress can be a positive force if managed
effectively. The right amount of stress will keep you alert, focused and
motivated to perform at your very best.
Dr. Costas Karageorghis is a BASES Accredited Sport
Psychologist and can be contacted at Brunel University: 020-9891 0121 x2820,
E-mail: costas.karageorghis@brunel.ac.uk
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